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Notes
[1] CitationKlein, Little Big Men.
[2] Connell, Citation Masculinities .
[3] CitationSabo and Runfola, Jock; CitationSabo, ‘Sport, Patriarchy, and Male Identity’; CitationSabo, ‘Pigskin, Patriarchy, and Pain’, 24–5.
[4] CitationMessner, ‘The Changing Meaning of Male Identity’; ‘Sports and Male Domination’.
[5] Although Connell's work in sport has come about only recently, he has been writing about sport as a function of class and gender issues in a more general sense for some time. See, for example, Which Way Is Up?; ‘An Iron Man’. Moreover, Connell's work on gender (Gender and Power) has made him a seminal figure in the sociology of sport and masculinity.
[6] CitationAdler and Adler, Backboards and Blackboards.
[7] , ‘Juicing, Burning, and Tooting’; ‘Traded, Winded, and Gassed’.
[8] CitationDonnelly and Young, ‘Reproduction and Transformation of Cultural Forms in Sport’; CitationYoung, ‘The Subculture of Rugby Players’.
[9] CitationDunning and Sheard, Barbarians, Gentlemen, and Players.
[10] CitationFine, With the Boys.
[11] Many scholars deal with issues of masculinity in their work, not the least of which are community studies focusing on the social construction of masculinity. See CitationTolson. The Limits of Masculinity; CitationWillis, Learning to Labour; CitationFoley, Learning Capitalist Culture.
[12] Despite the hard scientific casing, arguments purporting to show that gender is biologically rooted (for example, CitationWilson, Sociobiology; or CitationTiger, Men in Groups) have been largely discounted and need not be lengthily argued here. Various scholars have convincingly shown that the socio-biology arguments in the fields of genetic, studies of the brain, and the like betray their own allegedly ‘scientific’ purity. CitationSchiffelite's ‘Beyond Tarzan and Jane Genes’ has shown these studies to be socially and ideologically contaminated so that they predetermine results through biasing the selection of facts and concocting data.
[13] CitationVilar, Manipulated Man, 110.
[14] For example. CitationLiebowitz, Females, Males, and Family; CitationMead, Sex and Temperament in Three Primitive Societies; CitationLeacock, The Montagnais ‘Hunting Territory’ and the Fur Trade; CitationLeacock, Women's Status in Egalitarian Society’; CitationLandes, Ojibwa Women; CitationFriedl, Women and Men; CitationSanday and Goodenough, Beyond the Second Sex; CitationBeauvoir, The Second Sex; CitationMitchell, Psychoanalysis and Feminism.
[15] CitationConnell et al. , Making the Difference; CitationWhitson, ‘Sport in the Social Construction of Masculinity’; Herek, ‘On Heterosexual Masculinity’.
[16] CitationParsons, ‘Age and Sex in the Social Structure of the United States’; CitationParsons and Bales, Family Socialization and Interaction Process.
[17] CitationPleck, The Myth of Masculinity.
[18] CitationPleck and Sawyer, eds., Men and Masculinity.
[19] CitationCicone and Ruble, ‘Beliefs about Males’.
[20] CitationThompson and Pleck. ‘Reformulating the Male Role’; CitationBranni and Juni, ‘A Scale of Measuring Attitudes about Masculinity’.
[21] CitationBem, ‘The Measurement of Psychological Androgyny’.
[22] Pleck, The Myth of Masculinity.
[23] Cicone and Ruble, ‘Beliefs about Males’.
[24] CitationFreud, ‘Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality’.
[25] CitationChodorow, The Reproduction of Mothering, 138.
[26] Ibid., 139.
[27] Ibid., 181.
[28] Ibid., 182.
[29] CitationCarrigan, Connell, and Lee, ‘Hard and Heavy’.
[30] CitationReiter, ed., Toward an Anthropology of Women.
[31] CitationSacks, ‘Toward a Unified Theory of Class, Race, and Gender’.
[32] CitationHorowitz and Kaufman, ‘Male Sexuality’.
[33] CitationFranklin, The Changing Definition of Masculinity, 143.
[34] CitationConnell, Gender and Power, 54.
[35] Pleck, The Myth of Masculinity.
[36] Franklin, The Changing Definition of Masculinity.
[37] CitationConnell, ‘An Iron Man’, 83.
[38] For other examples of coexisting masculine ideals see Sabo, Jock; CitationMessner, ‘Masculinities and Athletic Careers’.
[39] CitationVan Gennep, The Rites of Passage; CitationGilmore, Manhood in the Making.
[40] CitationYoung, Initiation Ceremonies.
[41] Good examples of this process are found in CitationSimmons, ed., Sun Chief; CitationHerdt, The Sambia.
[42] CitationWhite and Vagi, ‘Rugby in the 19th Century British Boarding School System’; CitationSabo and Panepinto, ‘Football Ritual and the Social Reproduction of Masculinity’.
[43] Sabo, ‘Pigskin, Patriarchy, and Pain’.
[44] CitationRaphael, The Men From the Boys, 67.
[45] Whitson, ‘Sport in the Social Construction of Masculinity’, 23.
[46] Horowitz and Kaufman, ‘Male Sexuality’, 97.
[47] CitationMessner, ‘The Changing Meaning of Male Identity.’
[48] Franklin, The Changing Definition of Masculinity.
[49] Majors, ‘Cool Pose’.
[50] Scholars looking at black masculinity in the larger context include CitationStaples, Black Masculinity; CitationHare, ‘The Frustrated Masculinity of the Negro Male’; CitationHershey, ‘Racial Differences in Sex Role Identities’.
[51] Franklin, The Changing Definitions of Masculinity, 58.
[52] CitationMajors, ‘Cool Pose’, 111.
[53] Ibid.
[54] Ibid., 112.
[55] CitationDuneier, Slim's Table.
[56] CitationBreines, Tough Jews.
[57] ‘The New Asian Man’ San Francisco Examiner, 23 December 1991.
[58] Connell, Gender and Power, 83.
[59] Ibid., 85.
[60] CitationMishkind, et al., ‘The Embodiment of Masculinity’; CitationDarden, ‘Masculinity-Femininity Body Rankings in Males and Females’.
[61] CitationStory, ‘Factors Associated with Male Positive Body Self Concepts’; CitationLerner and Orlis, ‘Physical Attractiveness’.
[62] CitationRosenkrantz et al., ‘Sex Role Stereotypes and Self-Concepts’.
[63] CitationSpence and Helmreich, Masculinity and Femininity.
[64] Mishkind et al., ‘The Embodiment of Masculinity’, 45.
[65] CitationMessner, ‘Gendered Bodies’.
[66] CitationConnell, Which Way Is Up?
[67] CitationDunning, ‘Sport as a Male Preserve’.
[68] CitationHenry, Culture Against Man.
[69] CitationOpler, ed., Culture and Mental Health.
[70] CitationStein, The Psychoanthropology of American Culture.
[71] Muscle and Fitness, July 1991, 74.
[72] Muscular Development, May 1991, 91.
[73] Ibid.
[74] CitationBolin, ‘Vandalized Vanity’.
[75] Sam Edelberg, personal communication.
[76] CitationFussell, Muscle, 55.
[77] CitationMarx, Capital (Vol.1), 70.
[78] Ibid., 76; CitationMarx, Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844, 72.
[79] Muscle and Fitness, September 1984, 55.
[80] CitationFoucault, Power and Knowledge, 56.
[81] CitationGlassner, ‘Fit for Postmodern Selfhood’.
[82] CitationRandall et al., ‘Masculinity on Stage’.
[83] Of the various critiques of postmodern analysis, one of the most highly acclaimed is that of CitationHarvey, The Condition of Post Modernity.
[84] Much of the following discussion first appeared as an article, ‘CitationFear and Self-loathing in Southern California’.
[85] Mosse (ed.), Nazi Culture, 44.
[86] Muscle and Fitness, July 1984, 79.
[87] CitationReich, The Mass Psychology of Fascism.
[88] Stein, The Psychoanthropology of American Culture.
[89] CitationMosse, Masses and Man; CitationHoberman, Sport and Political Ideology, 84.
[90] Hoberman, Sport and Political Ideology, 84.
[91] Ibid.
[92] Mosse, Masses and Man, 185.
[93] Hoberman, Sport and Political Ideology, 99.
[94] Sontag, ‘Fascinating Fascism’.
[95] Mosse, Masses and Man, 185.
[96] Hoberman, Sport and Political Ideology, 100.
[97] Mosse, Masses and Man, 71.
[98] CitationKamentsky, ‘Folktale and Ideology in the Third Reich’.
[99] Reich, The Mass Psychology of Fascism.
[100] CitationSontag, ‘Fascinating Fascism’, 356.
[101] Muscle and Fitness, August 1984, 12.
[102] Sontag, ‘Fascinating Fascism’, 316.
[103] CitationMosse, Nazi Culture, 93.
[104] Muscle and Fitness, August 1984, 12.
[105] Sontag, ‘Fascinating Fascism’, 318.
[106] Hoberman, Sport and Political Ideology, 58.
[107] Mosse, Masses and Man, 174.
[108] Sontag, ‘Fascinating Fascism,’ 323–4.
[109] Mosse, Nazi Culture, xxi.
[110] CitationBeaumler, ‘Studen sui Deutchen Geistesgeschechte’, 294.
[111] Muscle and Fitness, August 1984, 8.
[112] Mosse, Masses and Man, 178.
[113] Muscle and Fitness, December 1990,140.
[114] Nazi professor, quoted in Mosse, Nazi Culture, 59.
[115] Sontag, ‘Fascinating Fascism,’ 316.
[116] Hoberman, Sport and Political Ideology.
[117] CitationLasch, The Culture of Narcissism, 85.
[118] CitationKernberg, Borderline Conditions, 234.
[119] Lasch, The Culture of Narcissism, 87.
[120] CitationSontag, On Photography, 349.
[121] Lasch, Culture of Narcissism.
[122] Franklin, The Changing Definition of Masculinity.
[123] Ibid., 99.
[124] CitationDerlega et al. , ‘Sex Differences in Self-Disclosure’.
[125] Whitson, ‘Sport in the Social Construction of Masculinity’.
[126] Choderow, The Reproduction of Mothering.
[127] For instance, Connell, Which Way Is Up?; Donnelly and Young, ‘Reproduction and Transformation of Cultural Forms in Sport’; Fine, With the Boys.
[128] CitationHerek, ‘On Heterosexual Masculinity’, 77.
[129] Pleck, The Myth of Masculinity, 95.
[130] Herek, ‘On Heterosexual Masculinity’.
[131] Whitson, ‘Sport in the Social Construction of Masculinity’, 23.
[132] CitationAdler, The Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler.
[133] Fussell, Muscle, 24.
[134] Ibid., 25.
[135] Ibid.
[136] Ibid., 138.
[137] CitationSolotaroff, ‘The Power and the Gory’, 31.
[138] Ibid.
[139] Majors, ‘Cool Pose’.
[140] CitationPronger, Arena of Masculinity.
[141] Messner, summarizing Pronger in ‘Gendered Bodies’, 9.
[142] CitationVarnell, ‘Jocks, Gays, and Gay Jocks’.
[143] CitationKomparu, Noh Theatre, 70.
[144] CitationHacker, ‘The New Burdens of Masculinity’.
[145] Chodorow, The Reproduction of Mothering.
[146] Hacker, ‘The New Burdens of Masculinity’, 231.
[147] CitationMessner, ‘When Bodies Are Weapons’, 18.
[148] Carrigan et al., ‘Hard and Heavy’, 180.
[149] CitationKimmel, ‘The Cult of Masculinity’, 6.
[150] Gilmore, Manhood in the Making.
[151] Connell, Gender and Power.
[152] CitationMessner, ‘Gendered Bodies’, 6.
[153] Connell, ‘An Iron Man’.
[154] Muscle and Fitness, August 1990, 165.