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Abstract
There are strong links between sport and terrorism, the extent of which is evidenced through the 168 sport-related terrorist attacks that occurred between 1972 and 2004. The terrorist power of uncertainty is potent because we live in a risk society, characterised by the cultural desire to control chance, be secure, and through institutions implementing sophisticated risk management policies. Accordingly, expensive risk management strategies, often involving international cooperation between governments, are now being implemented at major sporting fixtures to prevent any terrorism attacks. The appropriation of sport, as a site of terror, has resulted in a positive backlash of governmental cooperation, and multinational networking as well as grass roots resistance demonstrated by spectators who want to prevent terrorism interrupting their enjoyment of sporting events.
Notes
1 I would like to thank Millie Kennelly for her research assistance in preparing this paper.
2 CitationClark, ‘Targeting the Olympics’, 34; CitationKennelly, ‘Business as Usual’.
3 CitationToohey and Veal, Olympic Games.
4 CitationGiddens, ‘Risk Society’, 64.
5 CitationFrosdick, ‘Beyond Football Hooliganism’.
6 CitationDurodié, ‘Limitations of Risk Management’, 14.
7 CitationBeck, Risk Society.
8 CitationKenny, ‘Risk and Contemporary Life’, 1.
9 CitationBeck, Risk Society, 19.
10 Ibid., 13, (original emphasis).
11 Ibid., 23, (original emphasis).
12 CitationFrosdick, ‘Beyond Football Hooliganism’.
13 Putnam, Bowling Alone.
14 CitationDurodié, ‘Limitations of Risk Management’, 15.
15 CitationFuredi, Culture of Fear.
16 Ibid., viii.
17 Ibid., xiv.
18 CitationAltheide, ‘Notes Towards a Politics of Fear’, 38.
19 CitationDurodié, ‘Cultural Precursors’, 6.
20 CitationFuredi, Culture of Fear, vii.
21 Ibid., 2.
22 CitationEricson and Doyle, Uncertain Business, 141.
23 CitationGarland, Risk and Morality.
24 CitationAltheide, ‘Notes Towards a Politics of Fear’.
25 CitationBeck, ‘The Silence of Words’, 4.
26 CitationSpence, ‘World Risk Society’.
27 Beck, ‘The Silence of Words’, 8.
28 CitationAltheide, ‘Notes Towards a Politics of Fear’.
29 Durodié, ‘Panic in the Streets’, 17.
30 CitationKiras, ‘Terrorism and Globalisation’.
31 Constitutional Rights Foundation, ‘America Responds to Terrorism’; Taylor and Toohey, ‘Impacts of Terrorism Related Safety’.
32 CitationCentre For Arms Control and Non-Proliferation, ‘“Terrorism” Definitions’.
33 Constitutional Rights Foundation, ‘America Responds to Terrorism’.
34 CitationUnited Nations Public Inquiries Unit, ‘What is the UN Doing to Combat Terrorism?’
35 CitationCouncil on Foreign Relations, ‘Terrorism’.
36 CitationUnited Nations Public Inquiries Unit, ‘What is the UN Doing to Combat Terrorism’.
37 CitationJenkins, ‘International Terrorism’, 15.
38 CitationTarlow, Event Risk Management.
39 CitationToohey and Taylor, ‘“Here be Dragons”’.
40 CitationMoore, ‘Munich's Message’, 30–1.
41 CitationJohnson, ‘Future of Terrorism’.
42 CitationWarning, ‘A Political History’.
43 CitationDershowitz, Why Terrorism Works, 420.
44 Warning, ‘A Political History’.
45 CitationGroussard, The Blood of Israel.
46 CitationWarning, ‘A Political History’.
47 In CitationGroussard, The Blood of Israel, 422.
48 CitationKirshenbaum, ‘A Sanctuary Violated’, 24–6.
49 Dershowitz, Why Terrorism Works, 41.
50 Ibid., 46.
51 Ibid.
52 CitationKaram, ‘Olympic Snub’, 19.
53 CitationMcIntosh, ‘Security Measures’, 26.
54 CitationSanan, ‘Olympic Security Operations’.
55 CitationPound, Five Rings Over Korea.
56 Ibid.
57 CitationKennelly, ‘Business as Usual’.
58 CitationHinds, ‘Second When a City Lost its Soul’, 8.
59 CitationHewett, ‘A Grim Challenge’, 11.
60 CitationMagnay and Hinds, ‘TERROR’, 1, 7.
61 CitationToohey, Official Report of the Games.
62 CitationTerrorism Research Centre, ‘Terrorism Threat to the Australian Olympics’.
63 Ibid.
64 CitationKennelly, ‘Business as Usual’; ‘Operation Olympics’.
65 CitationToohey, Taylor and Lee, ‘FIFA World Cup 2002’.
66 CitationCashman, ‘Athens 2004’; CitationToohey and Taylor, ‘“Here be Dragons”’.
67 CitationDiaz, ‘Olympics Stress Safety’.
68 CitationWhite House, ‘Preparing for the World’,
69 CitationKennelly, ‘Business as Usual’.
70 CitationSnider, ‘Safety in Numbers’, 22.
71 CitationWicks, ‘World Cup Fans’.
72 CitationToohey, Taylor and Lee, ‘FIFA World Cup 2002’.
73 Ibid.
74 CitationPurvis, ‘How safe is Athens?’, 46.
75 CitationKennelly, ‘Business as Usual’.
76 CitationRufford, ‘24-hour Guard for Olympians’, 1–2.
77 CitationDahlberg, ‘US Debates on Sending Team to Athens Olympics’.
78 CitationKennelly, ‘Business as Usual’.
79 Athens Olympic Organising Committee, Citation2004, ‘International Olympic Security Conference’.
80 J. Coates, Words of the AOC President. Personal communication, 2004.
81 CitationKennelly, ‘Business as Usual’; CitationMcMurtrie, ‘PM Considers Armed Guards for Athletes’.
82 CitationLabi, ‘Armed Guards for Athletes’.
83 CitationKennelly, ‘Business as Usual’.
84 CitationLui, Vlahou and Robert, ‘Olympic Insecurity’, 22.
85 CitationKennelly, ‘Business as Usual’.
86 Ibid.
87 CitationWilson, ‘IOC Close a Deal for Cancellation Insurance’.
88 CitationBeijing Organising Committee for the Olympic Games, ‘Li Binghua Meets Security Experts’.
89 Sweaney, ‘Ready for Anything’, 22.
90 CitationAtkinson and Young, ‘Terror Games’.
91 Beck, Risk Society, 14.
92 Cronin, ‘Behind the Curve’.
93 Toohey and Taylor, ‘Mega Events, Fear and Risk’.