Football matches or power struggles? The Albanian case within historical conflicts and contemporary tensions

Abstract

Disputes over results of football matches, violent conflicts and claims of political intervention are evident in both the contemporary and the early beginning of the national football championships in 1930s Albania. The article questions the ‘reappearance’ of contested winners and violent confrontations in football matches through continuity and change in the relationship between state and sport. The relationship is examined socio-historically through the struggle for power between centre and localities. The article claims that the radical changes in social conditions and the transitions from one form of society to the other have not radically changed the form of interactions of power struggles with football and have not immunized public institutions from being used in the profit of groups in power. The tensions in football demonstrate the unsuccessfulness of central attempts in disempowering and subordinating localities. However, on the other hand they show the continuation of such attempts. Finally, the article underlines the possibilities of empowering communities through sport, in this case, football.

Notes

^1. Hargreaves, ‘Theory and Method’, 8, cited in Sugden and Tomlison, Power Games.

^2.Jarvie, Sport, Culture and Society, 66.

^3. It is common to note the period of the totalitarian regime in Albania as 1945–1991. However, in terms of accessibility to local and national sources we could have full-fledged scholarly research on the period only since early 1990s. In this sense, I think, we need further studies on the epoch after World War II to 1992 in order to avoid oversimplifying sociopolitical dynamics of the period by generalizations through dates or labels of regimes.

^4. I develop a socio-historical analysis of sportive and cultural activities through the lenses of public youth organizations in interwar Albanian in my PhD diss., see Fshazi, ‘Morality, Loyalty and Citizenship’.

^5. Since the collapse of the communist dictatorship the history of Albania is being revised in the light of new sources. For a distinctive study within a socio-historical perspective on the development of Albanian nationalism see Clayer, Aux origines du nationalisme albanias. For a political history of the interwar years in Albania see Fischer, King Zog and the Struggle. For a general overview of Albanian history see Vickers, The Albanians.

^6. Membership to FIFA, 1932. Membership to UEFA, 1954.

^7. Although football studies have particularly advanced since the late 1980s the socio-historical and cultural analysis of football in Albania remains still almost unexplored. Separate studies should be conducted as far as it concerns football and cultural tensions, nationalism, religion, ethnic identification or social tensions as class struggle, control of individual body, etc. For a basic guide to sport studies see Coakley and Dunning, Handbook of Sportive Studies. See also Horne, Jary, and Tomlison, Sport, Leisure and Social Relations. Particularly interesting would be the advancement of a study in terms of football, politics, power and international relations in the Albanian case. For an example of such work see Beck, ‘Relevance of the “Irrelevant”’.

^8. For a very brief overview of the main developments in Albanian football see http://www.uefa.com/memberassociations/association = alb/profile/index.html (accessed October 10, 2011). For a history of the Albanian national football championships see Dizdari, Historia e Kampionateve tëShqipërisë, Dizdari, Historia e Kampionateve të Shqipërisë 2 and Dizdari, Historia e Kampionateve në Shqipëri. In Cungu, Shkodra, the Sounding Values, 144, it is maintained that the first football team in Shkodra, “Leka i Madh”, was founded in 1905.

^9. In my PhD diss., I focus on the foundation, development, operation and institutional structure of the National Entity the Albanian Youth – Enti, see Fshazi, ‘Morality, Loyalty and Citizenship’.

^10.Mbretnija Shqiptare, Dekret-Ligje, 9.

^11. Albania was declared a Kingdom and Ahmet Zogu King of Albanians on 1 September 1928.

^12. The act of declaring loyalty to the King was done after public ceremonies when students and young boys enrolled in paramilitary troops marched through the city or made gymnastic performances. Such episodes can be found in the press of the period since 1928. See ‘Një festim i madhnueshëm gjimnastikuer me rastin e marrjes së flamujve prej Entit Kombëtar’. Gazeta e Re, June 13, 1929; and ‘Enti Kombëtar dhe Komandanti i Përgjithshëm në Vlorë’. Gazeta e Re, July 13, 1929. See also AQSH, Fondi Ministria e Arsimit, 1936. For an analysis of public ceremonies organised by the government since 1928 see Fshazi, ‘Morality, Loyalty and Citizenship’.

^13.Mbretnija Shqiptare, Dekret-Ligje, 1.

^14. For foundation and structure of the Federation see the statute: Mbretnija Shqiptare, Statuti i Federatës, 1935. For the foundation of the department “Djelmënia Shqiptare” in the Ministry of Education see the Gazeta Zyrtare (Official Journal), 1934, 1.

^15.Mbretnija Shqiptare, Statuti i Federatës, 1935.

^16. The law founding the Federation sanctioned the existence of cultural and sportive association with membership in the Federation. However, it did not prohibit the existence of more than one association in a locality. Nevertheless, the authorities pressured various associations in a locality to assemble in one association. This was particularly evident in the case of Shkodra. The attempts of the government are disclosed in internal correspondence between institutions. For examples of such correspondence see AQSH, Fondi Ministria e Arsimit, 1935–1936. For an analysis of these tensions between 1934 and 1939, see Fshazi, ‘Morality, Loyalty and Citizenship’.

^17. In Albanian the name of the cities Shkodra, Korça, etc., according to their position in the phrase can be used also as Shkodër or Korçë. In this article I have used only the version Shkodra, Korça, etc.

^18. For Stefan Shundi as one of the promoters of the nationalist intellectual current known as neo-Albanianism (neo-Shqiptarizma) in the 1930s Albania see Fshazi, ‘Morality, Loyalty and Citizenship’, chap. 2. For an example of his articles see Shundi, ‘Lëvizja e Djalëris’.

^19.Dizdari, Historia e Kampionateve tëShqipërisë, 143.

^20.Arbënia, 1930, 1.

^21. Ibid., 4.

^22.Gazeta e Korçës, July 1–15, 1930.

^23.Arbënia, 1930, 1–4. Gazeta e Korçës, 1930.

^24.Besa, 1934, 1.

^25. Ibid.

^26.Dizdari, Historia e Kampionateve tëShqipërisë, 145

^27. Komiteti Teknik Arbitral Shqiptar – Albanian Technical Referee Committee found in 1930 as part of the Sport Federation.

^28.Dizdari, Historia e Kampionateve të Shqipërisë, 146 and for this conflict see 145–8.

^29.AQSH, Fondi Ministria e Arsimit, 1937. Date on telegram, October 31, 1937. From, Cin Serreqi, Head of Vllaznija Association. To, The Federation ‘The Albanian Brotherhood’.

^30. The Prefecture is a main administrative unit, which is headed by the prefect who is appointed by the government. A prefecture includes rural areas and several cities, among which the largest becomes the centre of the prefecture. The prefecture is mentioned by the name of its largest city.

^31.AQSH, Fondi Ministria e Arsimit, 1937.

^32. Ibid. The coded message was sent from the Inspectorate of Education in Shkodër to the Ministry of Education in Tirana. Date and number on telegraph: ‘Nr. 21/2, 23.XI.1937’.

^33.AQSH. Fondi Ministria e Arsimit, 1938. Date and place on document: Shkodër, January 23, 1938.

^34. Ibid.

^35. Ibid. The association Vllaznia of Shkodra had been complaining even previously for favouritism underlining that efforts were spent to impede the victory of the team. The head of the association in 1936, Tush Kakarriqi, explained that such situation was demoralizing the youth of the city, while leaving no enthusiasm in the championship. See AQSH, Fondi Ministria e Arsimit, 1936. Letter sent on April 30, 1936, from the head of the Vllaznia association to the Sports Federation after the match Besa of Kavaja – Vllaznija of Shkodra. According to Kakarriqi there were many incidents during the match and the Sports Federation was not inquiring these incidents.

^36. ‘In the course of the game there was a crowd of players in the Tirana goal area, and in the general scrimmage an arm in the Tirana colours was thrust out and it stopped a shot by a Shkodër player. I had no doubt about it and awarded a penalty. The entire Tirana team clustered around me, protesting and arguing. I stuck to my decision and explained it…Of course I made my report to the governing committee and the match was awarded to Shkodër…My reputation at Shkodër, naturally enough, had gone up and the next time I refereed there the Shkodër team accepted a decision of penalty against them with only a little grumbling’. Hill, An Englishman in Albania, 49.

^37. For centralizing politics through football see Clignet and Stark, ‘Modernisation and Football in Cameroon’.

^38. These claims were put forward by representatives of the associations as well as the press supporting them, see AQSH, Fondi Ministria e Arsimit, 1937. Date on telegram October 31, 1937. From: Cin Serreqi. To: The Federation ‘The Albanian Brotherhood’. See also Gazeta e Korçës, July 1–17 Korrik, 1930 [in English].

^39. For a general overview of Football in Eastern Europe see Duke and Crolley, Football Nationality and the State, 86–99. An interesting work on football in the Nazi era is done about the Viennese football, see Marschik, ‘Between Manipulation and Resistance’.

^40. See Ligji për Sportin (Law for Sport), 2005, art. 16. This article also referred to other sources of financing without precisely indicating what they could be. Yet, this law's 11th section is titled ‘Financial Sources’. In two articles, (art. 36–37), it is explained that sport in the country is financed by central and local government sources, incomes of sportive organizations, the National Found for the Development of Sport (Fondi Kombëtar i Zhvillimit të Sportit), financing from international sportive organizations and other legal sources. This found is based in the Ministry of Culture, Youth and Sport and its income derives from the sportive lotteries. Its use is subject to the Minister's order and is applied according to the regulation issued by him in accordance with the law. Consequently, not only grants given to the federations are distributed by the Ministry but also the use of National Fund for the Development of Sport is left to the initiative and decision of the Minister.

^41.Ligji për Sportin.

^42. The elections for the head of the Weightlifting Federation in February 2009 were immerged in a scandal of accusations for favouritism of the government to certain candidates. The election process degenerated in violent clashes among participants. See ‘Esat Ademi konfirmohet te peshëngritja. Gjergj Ruli, rikthehet tek atletika’ [Esat Ademi confirmed in peshëngritja. Gjergj Ruli returning in athletics federation], Gazeta Shqip, http://forum.albaniasite.net/index.php?topic = 4875.0 (accessed October 1, 2011).

^43. ‘Esat Ademi zgjidhet në krye të KOSH. Pritet njohja nga Komiteti Olimpik Ndërkombëtar’ [Esat Ademi elected head of the Albanian Olympic Committee. waiting the approval of the International Olympic Committee], http://index.fieri.com/sports/1038-esat-ademi-zgjidhet-president-i-koksh-pritet-njohja-nga-komiteti-olimpik-nderkombetar.html (accessed October 1, 2011).

^44. The present president of the Albanian Olympic Committee is Agim Fagu elected on 14 July 2011. See http://www.nocalbania.org.al (accessed October 2011). This election was approximately three months after the disputed one.

^45.Ligji për Sportin, art. 9.

^46. See ‘E gjithë Korça në festë Skënderbeu është kampion’ [Korça celebrates Skënderbeu is a champion], http://www.balkanweb.com/sport/2692/e-gjithe-korca-ne-feste-skenderbeu-eshte-kampion-61476.html (accessed May 4, 2011).

^47. ‘Skënderbeu is Albanian champion for the second time since 78 years when it won the first title in the forth Albanian National Championship. This victory is for the moment held with a difference of four points from Flamurtari, only one match before the end of this championship, which is eagerly waited to end and hopefully be forgotten for all what happened until these last matches’. http://top-channel.tv/artikull.php?id = 210358&ref = fp (accessed May 5, 2011).

^48.Peçi, ‘Flamurtari - Skënderbeu’.

^49. ‘Në studion e Top Story, Shqipëria Vendos 2011, kryetari i Bashkisë së Vlorës, Shpëtim Gjika akuzoi Federatën Shqiptare të Futbollit se është bërë palë me politikën duke vjedhur futbollin’ [In the studio of Top-Story, Albania Decides 2011, the mayor of Vlora, Shpëtim Gjika accused the Albanian Football Federation of taking sides in politics by stealing football], http://top-channel.tv/artikull.php?id = 210281&ref = fp (accessed May 4, 2011). Parts were immerged in a series of conflicts on matches where the Club Flamurtari accused the Albanian Football Federation for politicizing the championship and acting against Flamurtari, while the Football Federation, accused the club of putting blame on it for its own defeats. See ‘Përplasja FSHF-Flamurtari, Gjika anulon Francën’ [The clash Flamurtari-Albanian Football Federation, Gjika cancels the match with France], http://www.shekulli.com.al/2011/03/16/perplasja-fshf-flamurtari-gjika-anulon-francen.html (accessed March 16, 2011).

^50. About the situation of Flamurtari's goalkeeper see: ‘Moçka në spital, policia: Faji i tij’ [Moçka in hospital, the Police: It was his fault], http://top-channel.tv/artikull.php?id = 209766&ref = fp (accessed May 3, 2011).

^51. ‘Disiplina refuzon kërkesën e Flamurtarit’ [Discipline refuses the demand of Flamurtari], http://top-channel.tv/artikull.php?id = 210236&ref = fp (accessed May 3, 2011). During this conflict the candidate of the Democrat Party in government was accused for favouring the team of Korça as a strategy of his campaign for mayor in the ongoing municipal elections. See http://www.balkanweb.com/sport/2692/penallti-per-vllaznine-flamurtari-braktis-ndeshjen-61466.html (accessed May 3, 2011).

^52. ‘Fushaj le Vllazninë’ [Fushaj leaves Vllaznija], http://top-channel.tv/artikull.php?id = 217162&ref = fp (accessed August 19, 2011). ‘Vllaznia do administrohet nga Bashkia Shkodër’ [The Municipality of Shkodër will administer Vllaznija], http://top-channel.tv/artikull.php?id = 217197&ref = fp (accessed October 19, 2011). Kodheli, ‘Fushaj dorëhiqet nga Vllaznija’. Kodheli, “Fushaj: Bashkia më largoi’.

^53. ‘‘Emërohet Tafaj, pritet privatizimi i klubit’ [Tafaj appointed, the privatization to follow], http://www.gazeta-shqip.com/#/sport/e3b22d1dc5ed8e17fb3c7fc04e920ac8.html (accessed August 23, 2011).

^54. ‘Vazhdon odiseja e pushtimit të SK Tiranës nga militantët’ [Continues the Odyssey of Sport ClubTirana's invasion from militants.], http://www.gazeta-shqip.com/#/sport/b0e7816b2af9275f548d6d9ee942f33c.html (accessed November 17, 2011).

^55.Marsi, ‘Flamurtari, Prefekti i Vlorës nuk’;‘Privatization, Waiting for the Signature of Prefect Veçani. Then, Tirana Remains the Unique Non-Private Club’, http://www.gazeta-shqip.com/#/sport/1c2ec2c25cf40a4cedb566049e7ae9e8.html (accessed July 6, 2011).

^56. Bora and Özgehan, ‘Nationalism, Europeanization and Football’. A different perspective we find in Hare, Football in France. The book emphasises the increasing importance of football in the creation of national identity in contemporary France.

^57. One of the first aspects to inquiry on violence in matches would be hooliganism. A broad perspective to such studies is given in Dunning, Murphy, Williams, ‘Spectator Violence at Football Matches’.

^58. The analysis of football and various identifications (regional, national, individual and communal), football and culture (popular, political, etc.), football and spaces (urban, rural, public, etc.) represents very interesting and unexplored paths in the historical and contemporary analysis of Albanian football. On the other hand, these have been explored through particular case studies and theoretical approaches to football. See Tomlison, Sport and Leisure Cultures. See also Tomlison and Young, German Football History.

^59. Clashes between localities through football in the case of Real Madrid and Barcelona during the Franco regime are analysed in Duke and Crolley, Football Nationality and the State, 1–8, and 24–49.