It is a squad game: Manchester United as a diplomatic non-state actor in international affairs

Abstract

This article explores Manchester United's role as a diplomatic actor in contemporary international affairs. It explores United as a lens on the role a sporting institution can have in the broader diplomatic milieu of the twenty-first century and the burgeoning understanding of sport diplomacy. The argument is that certain sporting institutions have a capacity to influence the diplomatic process in contemporary diplomacy because of the increasingly multilayered and multi-stakeholder nature of international affairs. The article analyses United across three categories: football, commercial, and business to illustrate their influence. The influence as a diplomatic actor is identified in two main forms: first, Manchester United participating as part of the English Premier League, playing in the Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) Champions League, and, second, as an international business with a truly global commercial brand, and in what might be considered traditional forms of diplomacy, with engagement with the attributes of Her Majesty's Government at home or abroad.

Acknowledgements

The author would like to thank Dr Geoffrey Allen Pigman and Dr Stuart Murray for their inspiration and patience in this endeavour, the two reviewers for their insightful comments, and the students of the author's postgraduate seminar ‘Sport and Diplomacy: “More than a Game”’ at SOAS, University of London, 2013.

Notes

^1. See United Review 75 (1): 66.

^2. Manchester United Communications Department to J Simon Rofe, 5 September 2013. The role of a Manchester United ambassador was previously outlined on the club website in 2011: ‘The ambassadors are fundamental in the work done with our fans, partners and the wider community to help keep them at the heart of the Manchester United family’. There is also an explicit commercial dimension to the ‘ambassadorial’ role as Commercial director, Richard Arnold commented at the time of the appointment of Gary Neville to the Ambassadorial role: ‘Gary's appointment was driven by his standing at the club coupled with a need for additional ambassadors as a result of the rapid expansion of Manchester United's commercial operations. Gary's passion and commitment to succeed on the pitch is matched, off the pitch, by the Club's global commercial operation.’ The implication of United commercial operation in relation to its capacity to be a non-state actor will be explored in the course of this article. ‘Nev's New Role’, April 8, 2011, http://www.manutd.com/en/news-and-features/club-news/2011/apr/ambassador-role-for-neville.aspx (accessed May 22, 2013).

^3. An ethnographic note of acknowledgement: the author is a season ticket holder on the Stretford End at Old Trafford. Therefore, it will be the job of another author to write a paper on Manchester City football club as a tool of public diplomacy on behalf of Sheik Mansour's Abu Dhabi United Group: Mansour being a member of the Abu Dhabi Royal Family and Minister of Presidential Affairs for the UAE.

^4. FIFA's Mission statement reads: ‘We See It as Our Mission to Contribute Towards Building a Better Future for the World by Using the Power and Popularity of Football’, http://www.fifa.com/aboutfifa/organisation/mission.html (accessed May 21, 2013).

^5. The iconic picture can be found at http://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/may/20/champions-league-final-g8-leaders (accessed July 22, 2013).

^6. The prevailing argument of the western diffusion of sport is countered by Shohei Sato's (2013) explanation of the rise to an Olympic Sport of Judo.

^7. Importantly, in relation to diplomacy, Hocking (2012) adds, ‘what we might term leading propositions about the state of diplomacy may in some senses be misleading’ in exploring the quality of change and continuity in diplomacy, the importance of context, and the demise (again) of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in the twenty-first century.

^8. ‘Bolt Again! 9.58 World Record in Berlin’, http://berlin.iaaf.org/news/kind = 100/newsid = 53047.html (accessed May 23, 2013)

^9. ‘Sachin Tendulkar Scores His 100th International Century for India’, http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/cricket/15647684 (accessed May 23, 2013)

^10. ‘Bonds Becomes King of Swing by Belting Homer No. 756’, http://sanfrancisco.giants.mlb.com/mlb/events/bonds/index.jsp (accessed May 23, 2013)

^11.http://www.manutd.com/en/Players-And-Staff/Managers/Alex-Ferguson.aspx (accessed May 23, 2013). These ‘sporting moments’ do not always have to involve moments of sporting excellence by sportsmen or sportswomen. By association with sport, these moments can communicate a message – the function of diplomacy; one can look at the ‘admission of guilt’ by disgraced cyclist Lance Armstrong to Oprah Winfrey, 18 January 2013. Lance Armstrong and Oprah Winfrey, interview transcript, http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/cycling/21065539(accessed July 23, 2013); or the celebrations to mark the opening to the London 2012 Olympics orchestrated by Oscar-winning film director Danny Boyle, ‘2012 Summer Olympics Opening Ceremony’, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_Summer_Olympics_opening_ceremony (accessed July 24, 2013).

^12. Pigman and Murray (2012).

^13. While a number of historians such as Barbara Keys, Thomas Zieler, Nicholas E. Sarantakes, Heather Dichter, John Soars, and Umberto Tulli form a cadre of those interested in Sport and History, researching the past publications of the following journals Diplomacy and Statecraft, Diplomatic History, and The Hague Journal of Diplomacy reveals a notable paucity of articles addressing sport. Those that do exist are noteworthy by virtue of their scarcity. See Chehabi's (2001) article addressing US-Iranian diplomacy, and two more recent examples: Murray (2012) and Morgan (2012). There is a forthcoming volume of The Hague Journal of Diplomacy addressing international sport and diplomacy. In some contrast, other fields of study have embraced sport in their endeavours with journals such as Sport in Society self-evidently, International Review for the Sociology of Sport, and also The Journal of Sport History and Sports Historian. In the former Wolfram Manzenreiter's (2008) ‘Football diplomacy, post-colonialism and Japan's quest for normal state status’ is notable, while sport diplomacy in relation to the Korean peninsula is explored in ‘The Politics of Sport Diplomacy and Reunification in Divided Korea One Nation, Two Countries and Three Flags (Merkel 2008). Occasionally special editions of other journals touch upon issues pertaining to sport such as Third World Quarterly's ‘Mainstreaming Sport into International Development Studies’ (Darnella and Black 2011). For broader literature on sport and its place in society, and despite a focus upon the United States one should consult Allan Guttman's (2004) ‘From Ritual to Record: The Nature of Modern Sports’.

^14. For further information on non-state actors, see Strange (1992).

^15. Berridge (2010) interprets these across 10 functions of traditional bilateral embassy relations with host governments: representation, promotion of friendly relations, negotiation, lobbying, clarifying intentions, political reporting/intelligence gathering, policy advice, consular services, commercial diplomacy, and propaganda.

^16. The quadrennial mega-events of global significance are sporting ones. Some have argued that they are twenty-first century summits and hence put an emphasis on the host location, cities such as Bejing 2008, London 2012, and Rio 2014 and 2016. As an example, see Acuto (2013).

^17. By way of example, one might take the diary of Joseph P. Kennedy, US Ambassador to the UK (1937–1940). In the summer of 1938 his diary was replete with sporting-cum-diplomatic events. In quick succession he attended an ice hockey match (10 May), the Derby ‘in Lord Derby's special train’ (1 June), gave a lunch for the Walker Cup amateur golfers (7 June), attended the Wightman Cup at Wimbledon (10 June), before Royal Ascot which he described as ‘A lawn party with horse racing on the side’. Diary entries May–June 1938, Joseph P. Kennedy Papers, John F. Kennedy Presidential Library, Boston, Massachusetts.

^18. Each of these organizations has a fascinating history which is beyond the scope of this paper. Their respective websites are http://www.premierleague.com, http://www.thefa.com/ (by virtue of being the founding football association in 1863, the Football Association carries no national identifier), http://www.football-league.co.uk/, and http://www.uefa.com/ (all accessed July 24, 2013). ‘Clubs Benefit from Champions League Revenue’, July 23, 2013, http://www.uefa.com/uefa/management/finance/news/newsid = 1975196.html (accessed July 24, 2013).

^19. European Club Association Vision and Mission, http://www.ecaeurope.com/about-eca/eca-vision-mission/our-mission/ (accessed July 24, 2013). The ECA is the successor body to the G14. Founded in 2000, the G14 group of 14 clubs (later expanded to 18 in 2002) came together to represent the interests of Europe's leading clubs in negotiation with UEFA and FIFA. Although never explicitly stated, the G14 represented a threat to UEFA to secede from their governance and form a competition of their own.

^20. Two excellent websites provide further history to the crash, those who were lost and the commemoration since. http://theflowersofmanchester.co.uk/ and http://munich58.co.uk/ (both accessed June 26, 2013).

^21. Perhaps football's most famous piece of artwork is L.S. Lowry's ‘Going to the Match’ which won a 1953 Football and the Fine Arts competition as part of the celebrations of the FA's 90th anniversary and sold in 1999 for almost two million pounds. Although born in Stretford, Lowry was an ardent Manchester City supporter, while the famous painting is of Bolton Wanderers' ground Burnden Park.

^22. For further information on football clubs and social media, see the well-maintained blog http://digital-football.com (accessed August 8, 2013). The role of social media and diplomacy is part of contemporary interest in diplomacy; see the work of Anthony Deos.

^23. Globalization is a highly contested term on every level, and not everything that is global is globalization. Thomas Friedman's tome, The World Is Flat: A Brief History of the 21stCentury, gave the phenomena a populist bent by identifying 10 ‘flatteners’.

^24. A personal account provided to New York University's writing programme by David Elias tells a familiar tale of an individual supporter with a varied cultural identity that has very little to do with the Salford Quays. ‘The World's Game’, http://www.nyu.edu/cas/ewp/eliasgamed04.pdf (accessed July 25, 2013)

^25. Manchester United claim that its website published in seven languages attracts on average more than 62 million views per month in the last 12 months. See ‘About Manchester United’, http://ir.manutd.com/phoenix.zhtml?c = 133303&p = irol-irhome (accessed May 26, 2013).

^26. For literature on place branding, see Anholt (2008); for nation branding, see Szondi (2008); for public diplomacy, see Cull (2009), Leonard, Steed and Smewing (2002), Melissen (2005), and Snow and Taylor (2009).

^27. Despite not being able to show in real time any first team live match action MUTV provides club news, live coverage of reserve/youth teams and feature programmes. The channel, sold to 22 international broadcast partners, covering 56 territories, is a vehicle for United's public diplomacy endeavours See ‘Manchester United Expands TV Deal to Boost Revenue’ http://www.benzinga.com/analyst-ratings/analyst-color/13/06/3696350/manchester-united-expands-tv-deal-to-boost-revenue-await# (accessed August 27, 2013). MUTV has been likened to Pravda by hardcore fans, drawing the parallel with the USSR's communist daily newspaper.

^28. Manchester United's public diplomacy efforts need not always involve Manchester United's football teams. As an example the Old Trafford stadium was chosen to host games in the football competition of the London 2012 Olympiad. The stadium has previously hosted games during the World Cup in 1966 and the European Championships in 1996, as well as the UEFA Champions League final in 2003.

^29. The lineage may be drawn to the work of Joseph Nye, who coined the term Soft Power to describe the ability to attract and co-opt rather than coerce, use force, or give money as a means of persuasion, in his 2004 book Soft Power: The Means To Success In World Politics.

^30. ‘Bottom Line Diplomacy: Why Public Diplomacy Matters’, Tara Sonenshine, Under Secretary for Public Diplomacy and Public Affairs, Center for Strategic and International Studies Washington, DC, June 18, 2013. Sonenshine continued as to the value of public diplomacy, ‘When Sen. Lindsay Graham referred to public diplomacy as “national security insurance,” I know exactly what he meant’, http://www.state.gov/r/remarks/2013/210771.htm (accessed June 22, 2013).

^31. Although beyond the scope of the article, to explore imagery plays an important role in public diplomacy, and when considered in relation to sport, the opportunities are boundless. One particular dimension is the stadia in which sport is played accruing by virtue of the deeds on the pitch. Manchester United's vast Old Trafford Stadium – known as the ‘Theatre of Dreams’ – pierces the post-industrial skyline of Salford Quays with particular purpose in illustrating the club's pre-eminence. Furthermore, it is worth noting the emerging trend in football-related business deals to include ‘image rights’ clauses, such as in the world-recording breaking transfer of 100 million Euros of Gareth Bale from Tottenham Hotspur FC to Real Madrid CF in August 2013.

^32. Together nation building and public diplomacy are explored by Szondi (2008) who sees a number of similarities and differences between the two concepts, but acknowledges that ‘the relationship between them remains anecdotal and ambiguous’.

^33. The emergence of this field of study is seen in the establishment in 2004 of the Place Branding and Public Diplomacy journal (Palgrave Macmillan, http://www.palgrave-journals.com/pb/index.html).

^34. ‘The Work of MU Foundation’, http://www.mufoundation.org/en/AboutTheFoundation.aspx (accessed August 24, 2013).

^35. ‘AON Signs 8-Year Deal’, manutd.com, April 8, 2013, http://www.manutd.com/en/News-And-Features/Club-News/2013/Apr/aon-to-sponsor-manchester-united-training-kit-and-training-ground.aspx?pageNo = 2; the version released to the investor relations website http://ir.manutd.com/phoenix.zhtml?c = 133303&p = irol-newsArticle&ID = 1803997&highlight = Carrington.‘£160 m Aon Training Ground Deal Ensures Manchester United Stretch Lead Over City in the Global Branding League’, April 9, 2013, The Independent, http://www.independent.co.uk/sport/football/news-and-comment/160 m-aon-training-ground-deal-ensures-manchester-united-stretch-lead-over-city-in-the-global-branding-league-8565102.html (all accessed August 26, 2013).

^36.http://www.imusa.org/ and http://action.joinmust.org/index.php/blog/. The extent of ill-feeling towards the American take over was the catalyst for the most disgruntled fans to form a separate club in the summer of 2005: FC United of Manchester, which has enjoyed a remarkable rise through the lower echelons of English football. http://www.fc-utd.co.uk/m_history.php (all accessed August 27, 2013).

^37. In addition to its official sponsors, Manchester United offers ‘MU finance’ to its supporters in 15 different countries through 13 different financial institutions including current shirt sponsor AON, as well as the likes of MBNA and the one of China's big four banks ‘China Construction Bank (CCB)’, http://www.manutd.com/en/MAN-UTD-FINANCE/Partners-Map.aspx (accessed August 26, 2013).

^38. A very helpful outline of the football tours undertaken during the early part of the twentieth century can be found at the following website: http://www.rsssf.com/tablesb/brit-ier-tours-prewwii.html. For tours undertaken to the USA, see http://homepages.sover.net/ ∼ spectrum/index.html (both accessed May 23, 2013).

^39. There is more work to be done on the motivations and opportunities that these early tours offered, players and clubs, and the relationship with the diplomatic attributes of the state. Importantly, parallels may be drawn with the tours undertaken by other sports such as cricket and rugby. For one such example see, Kidambi (2011).

^40. The Manchester United tour of 2011 was to have included an audience with President Barack Obama, at the White House, and although the visit took place, the President was detained on matters of state. ‘Manchester United Visit the White House: Champions Are Given a Special Tour of Iconic Building in Washington’, The Daily Mail, July 29, 2011, http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sport/football/article-2020005/Manchester-United-visit-White-House.html#ixzz2h2BP56wx (accessed October 4, 2013).

^41. ‘On Tour with the FA’, Soccer from the Press Box (Ledbrooke and Turner, 1950, 207). The idea of footballers being Ambassadors is not a new phenomenon: ‘…players for England must be footballers, gentlemen, and ambassadors too. They carry a grave burden on their shoulders, calling on them to be well behaved both on and off the field’. Daniel Taylor noted as recently as 2012 that ‘England's footballers are meant to be ambassadors for their country’, The Observer, September 9, 2012.

^42. See Murray (2012, 581–583), Pigman (2012), and Pigman and Murray (2012).