Escalation vs. non-escalation of fan violence in football? Narratives from ultra fans, police officers and security employees

Abstract

Despite a large body of literature about fan violence issues, research investigating perceptions and dynamics in potentially violent situations, called critical incidents (CIs), is missing. This qualitative study examined the perceptions and dynamics of CIs involving ultra football fans. Fifty-nine semi-structured interviews with individuals (fans, police officers or security employees) involved in eight CIs were conducted and analysed using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis. The assessment of legitimacy of an out-group’s actions strongly influenced the perception of a CI, which is in line with the Elaborated Social Identity Model. Informative intergroup communication about the own intentions seemed to increase perception of legitimacy, while arrests of fans due to pyrotechnics were perceived by fans as illegitimate. The local fan culture, e.g. the fans’ use of pyrotechnics for their support, is relevant for the understanding of this assessment of legitimacy.

Acknowledgement

The first author is thankful for the contribution of Stefan Schlup to numerous transcriptions.

Notes

1. For example, for Italy, see Dal Lago and De Biasi (1994); for Germany, see Pilz (2005); for Denmark, see Havelund, Joern, and Rasmussen (2012). An extensive comparison of different facets of the ultra culture(s) is available in Pilz and Wölki-Schumacher (2010).

2. FSW: socio-professional fan worker paid by the ‘Trägerverein’ [support association] and the particular canton and city (Projektgruppe “Rahmenkonzept Fanarbeit in der Schweiz” 2010).

3. Common name for the group leader of ultras, who leads choruses and chants during matches.

4. FW: club-related FW working for and paid by the football club (Projektgruppe “Rahmenkonzept Fanarbeit in der Schweiz” 2010).

5. Police spotters are experts on fan groups of their local football club. They deliver information to the director of operations of the police. Spotters are also responsible for the surveillance of known offenders and usually work in plain clothes.

6. Stereotyping means building stereotypes. Definition of a stereotype: ‘Associations and beliefs about the characteristics and attributes of a group and its members that shape how people think about and respond to the group’ (Dovidio et al. 2010, 8).

7. Detentions are conducted in several stadiums all around Switzerland after the end of a match to ensure a proper separation of the opposing fan groups. The fans are obliged to wait inside the stadium until the home fans have largely left their sector.