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Abstract
Rugby union developed as a closed sport, enshrined in traditions and extremely attentive to quality. For a long time therefore, it conveyed the characteristics of luxury goods. In the 1980s, this aristocratic model faced a new economic reality which compelled rugby union to a reinterrogate its model. With its professionalization, it had to open up to new perspectives and tried to become profitable and to conquer new markets all over the world. The difficulties it encountered in these circumstances reflect the contradictions inherent in the democratization of luxury goods.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
Notes
1 Notes
The majority of the fundamental rules of rugby were established around 1880 but a body of rules had initially been drawn up back in 1846.
2 The sporting culture can be defined as ‘a specific combination of practices, behaviors, relationships with the body and value systems shared by the group of practitioners of a given sport’ (Darbon Citation2002, 3) – with the category of practitioners being understood in the broadest sense to include managers and spectators. See also Pociello (Citation1999).
3 Another similarity was that the British maintained control over changes to the rules.
4 An annual tournament involving England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland has been held since 1883. For a while, it was known as the Four Nations Tournament, becoming the Five and then Six Nations when France and Italy respectively joined the competition, but the original tournament continues to exist within the new competitive format.
5 Unsurprisingly, in Australia, Rugby Union is favoured above all by members of the more affluent classes, whereas Rugby League is preferred by members of the working classes (Augustin Citation2007).
6 As for France, the possibility of the championship disappearing altogether was even discussed between 1930 and 1950 (Garcia Citation2013).
7 In 1924 – the date of the last official appearance of rugby, Romania, which was heavily beaten during its two matches, still won the Bronze medal as only three teams took part in the competition.
Rugby, in the form of Rugby Sevens, returned to the Olympic Games in Rio in 2016.
8 Tradition can be interpreted here in a variety of ways: a historical basis – the Calcutta Cup commemorates the brief existence of a rugby club in Calcutta after a match between England and Scotland in the city in 1872 (Napit.co.uk Citation2017) – as well as the imitation of a customary practice. The Giuseppe Garibaldi Trophy was created after Italy joined the tournament: it is awarded to the winner of the match between France and Italy.
9 The notions of ‘hegemony’ and ‘cultural imperialism’ also offer an angle of attack (Morris Citation2008).
10 However, due to its policy of apartheid, South Africa did not take part in the competition. International pressure from outside the rugby world gradually bore fruit (Nauright Citation1993). As if thumbing its nose at this measure that was practically imposed on it, the IRFB invited Zimbabwe to represent the African continent instead, regardless of the fact that this country was beset by similar issues to those in South Africa (Wyatt Citation1995).
11 Scotland’s win against Ivory Coast by the score of 89-0 in the 1995 edition aroused heated debate (Wise Citation2017).
12 To illustrate how sporting contacts in rugby tend to narrow the gaps between teams, France lost its first 16 matches against England, sometimes by enormous scores, before claiming its first victory. Since then, the results have been relatively even (Rugbydata Citation2018).
On a similar level, the minor nations have reproached the founding federations for granting themselves more rest days between matches in the pool stages of World Cup tournaments (Rugbyrama Citation2013).
13 In Europe, Rugby Europe organizes competitions including the Rugby Europe International Championship, which consists of seven divisions and a system of promotion and relegation, except in the first division – also known as the ‘Six Nations B’ tournament – in which there is no promotion, and in the last division, in which there is no possibility of relegation.
14 That is why, in spite of the split between Northern Ireland and Eire, Irish players continue to wear the same jersey in international rugby competitions, which is quite a rare occurrence in the world of sport. This custom contrasts sharply with the groundbreaking position regarding the attribution of sporting nationality since the transition to professionalism: players do not need to hold the passport of the country for which they are playing. A period of residency is sufficient. Although it has just been extended from 36 to 60 months (World Rugby Citation2017b), this is also quite exceptional.
15 Before this name was adopted, the southern hemisphere’s professional league had firstly been called Super 12 and then Super 14.
16 The competition between national teams, formerly known as the Tri-nations, was renamed the Rugby Championship after Argentina joined it. SANZAAR itself bore a slightly different name: SANZAR, and it will need to find a new one if Japan becomes a full member.
The franchises are determined not to be outdone: after losing their place in Super Rugby, two of them are contemplating joining a league in … the northern hemisphere (McKay Citation2017). They have been accepted.