Making it work—fitting parenthood into an elite sport career

Abstract

The purpose of this study is to analyze and problematize the possibilities and challenges of combining an elite sport career with parenthood among elite athletes in Sweden. Specific focus will be on time management, financial conditions, and support. Ten active or formerly active elite athletes who had combined or tried to combine elite sports with parenthood were interviewed. The athletes represent a range of different sports and played in teams or as individual competitors. Some were full-time athletes, while others had additional employment. Work–family conflict was present for the athletes, with the results showing that combining elite sports with parenthood can work, but only if the athlete has adequate resources. The most important resource is social support from the athlete’s family. The sport organizations appear somewhat invisible as a supportive structure; therefore, the athletes have contributed with ideas of what these organizations can do to increase their support.

Keywords:

• Elite athletes
• parenthood
• resources
• social support
• work–family conflict

Introduction

In autumn 2020, the International Football Federation (FIFA) proposed a new policy to support female players and coaches who become pregnant during their football career. The policy gives women in the club the right to maternity leave, medical and physical support, and employment protection (FIFA 2020). The issue of female elite athletes and parenthood having reached the headquarters of one of the biggest sports in the world shows that it is gaining more attention. According to media coverage and research, athletes often decide to become parents in the middle of their careers, but this is (still) a women’s issue. Seldom are there news reports of male elite athletes and parenthood. In a study on parental leave, Haas, Allard, and Hwang (2002) wrote that men are more likely to adapt to the workplace culture and therefore are more reluctant to change the workplace to be more family-friendly. In a study on coaches in sport, the researchers found that women are more likely to try to change their affiliated organization to make it possible to combine work and parenthood (Bruening and Dixon 2008).

Today, many elite athletes compete in their sport longer than elite athletes in the past, as it is not unusual for them to continue until around age 40. In some sports, this has always been the case, but in other sports, it is a newer trend. The clash between the athlete’s sport and the desire to have children will therefore become a more pressing issue for more athletes, both women and men.

The purpose of this study is to analyse and problematize the possibilities and challenges of combining an elite sport career with parenthood among elite athletes in Sweden. Specific focus will be on time management, financial conditions, and support. The research questions are: What are elite athletes’ perspectives about combining elite sport and parenthood before having children? What makes it difficult to combine elite sport and parenthood? If this balance works for them, then what is the main reason? If the balance does not work, then what solutions would make a difference?

Background

The following paragraphs will explain the Swedish parental insurance system and childcare services. This will help to understand the context that the elite athletes are in and what rights they could claim. In the Swedish society, parents have the right to parental benefits. For every child, there are 480 days for parents to be home with their child with payment. The parents can share these 480 days how they want except that 90 days are reserved for each parent and cannot be transferred. If they are not used they are gone. If you have no income or a low income there is a minimum of ∼730 euros per month (Försäkringskassan 2023a). As a parent, you also have the right to be home with the child when the child is ill (VAB = Vård av sjukt barn = care of ill child) with payment. You can be home with an ill child from the child is 8 months up until the child is 12 years old (Försäkringskassan 2023b).

All municipalities in Sweden should offer preschool to children living in Sweden who have not yet started school. From one year old children should be offered preschool to the extent the parents need it due to work or studies. Children whose parents are unemployed or on parental leave should be offered preschool at least 15 h a week (Skolverket 2023).

For elite athletes in Sweden, there are many who do not earn any money or very little money on their sport (Hellborg 2019). If they do not have a full time job, they will get less parental leave payments and they may not be allowed to have their children in preschool for a full work day.

Previous research

Research on motherhood shows that there are perceptions of what a mother is and what a mother should do. Mothers are expected to give the child their full attention, whereas fathers are not expected to be omnipresent and given more freedom to prioritize work (Smeby 2007). Folbre explains that women who aspire for a career are more criticized than men who prioritize their career. Women’s ‘selfishness’ is seen as a comparatively bigger threat in society (Folbre 2009), and this view includes women who want to commit to elite sports. Additional research on elite sports and motherhood also confirms this. For example, the feelings of guilt that are evoked and felt by athlete mothers (Darroch and Hillsburg 2017; Palmer and Leberman 2009).

The research area of being an elite athlete and a parent is increasing, particularly within research on mothers. In 2023, the book Motherhood and Sport: Collective Stories of Identity and Difference investigated motherhood and sport, which included research on elite athletes. One chapter contains an autoethnographic study of a Paralympian triathlete and her coach preparing for an extreme sport event. The study addressed guilt, commitment, and explored the question of where to draw the line regarding taking risks when you are a mother (Spowart and Pearson 2023).

In relation to elite sport and motherhood, we know that this combination causes several problems. The most apparent issue is that of pregnancy. Being away and coming back from childbirth complicates an elite sport career (Appleby 2004; Massey and Whitehead 2022). In addition, the notion of the ‘intensive motherhood’ ideal affects athletes who are mothers. The ideal implies that mothers should devote all their time to the child/children and that the amount of time spent with the child/children is of the utmost importance (Dermott 2008). When this motherhood ideal meets time-consuming practices like elite sports, participating in sports causes feelings of guilt (Dashper 2012; Palmer and Leberman 2009). Women are also still seen as primary caregivers, and as such, should take the responsibility when, for example, work and childcare pressures collide (Gerson 2017). Andreasson, Johansson, and Danielsson (2018) showed that both male and female athletes fall into gender stereotypical patterns when having children. For athlete mothers, these stereotypes become problematic because, although they are viewed as primary caregivers, they need to find the time to practice and compete in their sport.

According to Kalist’s (2008) study, motherhood affects productivity and earnings for professional golf players on the LPGA tour. Kalist found that earnings decreased for the women after they had children, due in some part to competing less and having less time to train. In a previous study from Sweden, it was shown that scholarships to elite athletes from the Swedish Olympic Committee were withdrawn when a woman became pregnant or was recovering from childbirth (Hellborg 2019). Palmer and Leberman’s research on mothers who are elite athletes found that some women were disappointed by the lack of support from their sport, as pregnancy is generally regarded as the end of their career. Some athletes, however, expressed that they were supported to come back to their sport. What appears to be helpful for combining elite sports and parenthood is support from the family, which enables the athletes to practice and compete (Hellborg 2019; Palmer and Leberman 2009). Nevertheless, some elite athletes express that they feel guilty about how their partner sacrifices their time and career to support them (Palmer and Leberman 2009). Support structures are important for competing in elite sport to work alongside parenthood. Darroch and Hillsburg (2017) found in their study of elite distance runners that support from primarily their partner was of the utmost importance, both emotionally and financially. However, this support also creates a guilty conscious, as mentioned. Motherhood was addressed in the autobiography of a British long-distance runner. The biography was analysed by McGannon, Tatarnic, and McMahon (2018), who found that the situation worked for the athlete because sport became an integral part of family life. Her coach was her husband, and this was a huge advantage. The researchers also noted the lack of research regarding compatibility between social support and structural support.

In research on work–family conflict, social support is a factor that facilitates combining work and family. Extensive research has been conducted about when the demands of both work and family become incompatible, showing that support from the workplace is important for managing the work–family conflict (French et al. 2018). Even when sport may not generate income for the elite athlete, it nevertheless has time demands and could be viewed as a type of work. The difficulty lies in combining work, family, and elite sports. Moreover, needing to work as well as competing in elite sports complicates the situation, given that work, elite sports, and children are all require time (Hellborg 2019).

Research has not focused equally as much on fatherhood and elite sport as it has on motherhood and elite sport. However, combining parenthood and elite sport can also be problematic for men. Being away from the family for longer periods of time is not ideal and can cause changes to the elite sport career; for example, they may quit or move to a better environment for family life (Hellborg 2019). Dermott’s (2008) research on fatherhood found that fathers expressed that they wanted to ‘be there’ as a father. However, the actual amount of time spent was not as important for them as for mothers. For fathers, it was more important to be there as a figure who provides fun and quality time (Dermott 2008).

Theory

The concept of work–family conflict forms the theoretical base of this paper. Similar research differentiates between work-to-family conflict and family-to-work conflict. The former happens when work interferes with family, for example, working overtime and therefore missing time with family. The latter occurs when family interferes with work, for example, when you need to be home with sick children and miss work (Kossek, Turner, and Lee 2017). In Kossek, Turner, and Lee’s research, they found that collectivistic cultures had a strong relationship between work–family demands and work-to-family conflict. In relation to this study, this may indicate that the conflicts are harder to manage in team sports than in individual sports. However, Kossek, Turner, and Lee also found that collectivism moderates work-to-family conflict and depression, which indicates that social support helps deal with the pressure. When work–family conflict is used as a concept in this study, ‘work’ refers to the elite sport career regardless of whether they are paid or need to take on additional employment.

Connected to work–family conflict is role theory. A role is a position one inhabits; and given that people inhabit many roles, there may be role conflicts at play. This happens when expectations from two roles interfere with each other simultaneously. Role expectations are the activities that the role is expected to include (Katz and Kahn 1978). For an elite athlete, the role expectations would include activities like training, recovery, eating healthy, competing, and maybe even winning. Kossek, Turner, and Lee mention three types of conflicts regarding roles. Time-based role conflict occurs when, for example, time demands between work and family compete. There is not enough time for both. Strain-based conflict is when, for example, work is exhausting and stressful and affects the energy available for family life. In addition, behaviour-based conflict is when behaviour patterns related to work and family are not compatible (Kossek, Turner, and Lee 2017). An example would be elite athletes having to be committed and ‘selfish’ to be able to achieve their goals, however, being selfish is deemed not appropriate when having children who demand the parent’s full attention.

When roles are conflicting, you need a strategy. What am I going to focus on and when? How do I use my resources in the best possible way? Hobfoll (1989) developed a theory about the conservation of resources (COR). It is a theory concerning stress; however, in this study, the theory will go towards explaining the athletes’ relation to and investment in different resources. The model’s foundation is that people want to gain, protect, and increase resources and that the loss of these resources is a threat. Halbesleben et al. (2014) suggest that autonomy is a concept that is important in this theory, as autonomy-related resources are of the greatest value for the individual. Being able to control your situation is important. Hobfoll (1989) defines resources as ‘those objects, personal characteristics, conditions, or energies that are valued by the individual’ (p. 516). Objects can be a house, personal characteristics refer to the person’s skills or traits, and conditions are job security or a good marriage (Hobfoll 1989; Hobfoll et al. 1990). Energies are defined primarily as resources that are used to gain other resources, such as time, money, and knowledge (Hobfoll 1989). These resources are mostly important for acquiring other resources. What is of great value for elite athletes in this study are elite sports and parenthood. For them, the combination is a situation they want/wanted. However, they need to invest resources to make this situation work. This raises the question of how much risk are they willing to take (with their current resources) to invest in this condition, as in, combining elite sports and parenthood? If the investments do not generate a good return, this can be experienced as a loss. How much risk one is willing to take depends on how many resources one has to begin with, for example, whether they are paid as athletes (cf Halbesleben et al. 2014). Consequently, the question is highly relevant: when are the costs too high? This question is always central for elite athletes or anyone aspiring for career advancements, but it becomes even more prominent when there are children involved.

Hobfoll (1989) writes that social relations can be a resource if they preserve valued resources, but they can also cause a loss of resources. Although social support is outside of the individual, it can widen an individual’s resources. Social support can also be used as practical assistance or as a source for community and care, providing a safe space to regroup (Hobfoll et al. 1990). Halbesleben et al. (2014) writes about resource signals. The individual cannot control these, so it is not a resource but rather a sign. It could be trust or justice; for example, the perception of justice can signal that an investment is worthwhile. Therefore, if a person has trust in the system—that it will take care of them—then they are more willing to invest. This indicates that support systems are very important for the decision to invest and take a risk.

The concept of work-family conflict and role conflicts are used to explain the problem the athletes are facing, that there are two really important parts of life that are in conflict and in what way they are conflicting. COR is used to understand why they can or cannot solve or balance these conflicts.

Methods

Qualitative methods are used in this study to answer the research questions about the possibilities and challenges for elite athletes who combine sports with parenthood. The material consists of ten interviews with active and formerly active elite athletes who have combined elite sport with parenthood. Six of the athletes were active at the time of the interview, and nine are women. Six represent individual sports, and four represent team sports. The sports that are included in this study are air sports, archery, equestrian sports, floorball, football, skiing, and aquatic sports. Some are professional elite athletes, meaning they are paid to be an athlete, and some have a job because they are either not paid full time or at all.

The athletes have been recruited through a survey for another study, direct email, or through other contacts. Both men and women were contacted, but mainly women responded. The interviews were conducted via video call and recorded with an audio recorder. I asked if they consented to being recorded for this study, which all did. They were told they would be made anonymous, and that they had the right to withdraw from participation at any time until the study was published. The interviews were conducted between November 2021 and May 2022, with each lasting about an hour. The interview recordings were transcribed.

The interviewees are made anonymous; their real names are not used, and quotations are not connected to a specific sport. The interviewees are referred to as participating in individual sport or team sport. Any sport-specific content has been changed to preserve anonymity, for example, if the athlete named a certain type of competition that only exist in their sport, it was changed to the more general, ‘a competition’, or if they talked about other football players or skiers, this was changed to simply ‘athletes’ (Table 1).

Table 1. Interviewed athletes.

Rebecka	Individual sport	Active	Nov. 2021
Henry	Team sport	Retired	Nov. 2021
Hilda	Individual sport	Retired	Dec. 2021
Alexandra	Individual sport	Active	Jan. 2022
Diana	Individual sport	Retired	Jan. 2022
Maja	Team sport	Active	Jan. 2022
Alice	Team sport	Active	Feb. 2022
Sabina	Team sport	Active	April 2022
Sara	Individual sport	Active	May 2022
Iris	Individual sport	Retired	May 2022

An interview guide was used, which included certain topics that were important to address in the interview: planning to have children, training and competing, financial conditions, role models, support from the federation, and support from family. In addition, they were asked about what needs to change.

To systemize the data material, I have used thematic analysis, which is a way of categorizing data material. Braun and Clarke (2022) describe six phases in the analytic process: (1) familiarization, (2) data coding, (3) initial theme generation, (4) theme development and review, (5) theme refining, defining, naming, and (6) writing up. I see these phases as quite fluid, and they emerge into each other. There are no clear rules in thematic analysis, according to Braun and Clarke (2022). Following I describe my process. After the interviews were conducted and transcribed, I familiarized with the data by listening to the recordings and reading the transcripts. The data was coded by using the topics from the interview guide as a starting point. I explored if the data could be coded by transforming these topics to themes. I evaluated if the topics were relevant or if there were other themes that were more useful. For example, ‘financial conditions’ as a theme were not as large as I expected so I could not use that topic as a theme. Next, I identified patterns in the data that could fit within a theme. Then I reviewed the themes, emerged smaller themes with each other, and redefined them into larger themes instead of using several smaller themes. For example, one topic was ‘role models’ and this were included in a bigger theme about ‘planning before children’. The four bigger themes that were used in the results were planning before children, training and competing, challenges, and solving problems. By using broader themes, it was easier to include the nuances of the athletes’ stories. I found that they each had a different perspective than the others. The complexity of these stories needed to come forth and widening the themes made that possible. I selected the quotes that illustrated each theme and nuances within them. The many quotes are chosen because they illustrate a story that is complex and I wanted the athletes’ voices to be heard, their (translated) words.

Results

In this section, the results are presented. Here, quotations are used often because it was important to bring forth the athletes’ stories and their words. The quotations are translated from Swedish. The results are divided into four different categories: Planning, Training and competing, Challenges, and Problems that can be solved? Planning brings up the thoughts before having children and how this would fit in with elite sports. Training and competing is about what makes it work for them, like help from parents, partners, and nannies. Challenges addresses what makes it difficult for them, it could be financially, rights they should have, support they wish they had, but also other people’s opinions. The last section is about possible solutions and brings up what they see that could solve their situation, for example, support, a plan or strategy, and paid nannies. They also talk about the importance of information and raising awareness. There is some analysis made here but a more elaborated analysis is presented in the section called Analysis. The analysis in this section is more specific to that theme, the analysis in the next section takes a broader approach.

Planning

The athletes talk about how they thought about combining parenthood and elite sports before having a child and when it was that they decided to try and do this. Regarding planning for children, some had very clear ideas about what they wanted, with them and others expressing the will to show it can be done/prove the possibilities:

‘I have been firmly determined that I want to do this within my [elite sport] career. But above all, not wait until after.’ (Maja)

‘It has been very undisputable. The dads have known about it too – that this is what it will be.’ ‘The starting point [in this sport] is that, of course, it works. Then, the question is, how do we solve it?’ (Sara)

‘For me, it was obvious that I should continue. It was not unplanned to have a child – it was my intent. It was a little taboo and maybe a little strange, un-Swedish. People thought that ‘you did not do this in Sweden’… so it was hard to talk about my thoughts, that I had decided to come back.’ (Hilda)

‘I think it grew on me, triggered me that not many in [my sport] had done this before.’ (Iris)

‘I had a strong desire to be the one that shows that it can be done.’ (Rebecka)

For some athletes, role models were important.

‘I had seen sporting mothers from other countries and [in other sports in Sweden] … I felt very strongly when I saw them that this was something that I wanted to do. It was my calling. It was what I was supposed to do, I felt.’ (Hilda)

‘I saw a German [athlete] who [competed] on a very high level … and was [pregnant] … and it was very inspiring … and then it felt much easier to decide to have children.’ (Diana)

Some had children during the pandemic when competitions were cancelled. They used this time to take the opportunity to have children if they were ready. Others have also tried to plan for children in relation to important competitions.

‘Then of course you try to plan so the baby is not born when there is a championship. We have always planned for it. It is born, and then is at this age at this time. They need to be born in the spring or in the autumn. It sounds really weird.’ (Sara)

At this stage, there is no conflict with sports. The athletes are determined and have decided to try to combine elite sports and parenthood. Some are pioneers in their sport, as combining elite sports with parenthood is not common. Nevertheless, time comes up as an issue regarding planning for children in relation to their sport’s calendar (i.e. the important competitions). Some adapt to the sport season, so they miss as little as possible. They try to save time or invest their time to minimize having any time taken away from their elite sport. This is what Hobfoll (1989) means by conserving resources. An elite sport career is often more limited than other careers so to plan carefully is a way to conserve time, time they can use for important competitions. So they sacrifice some time to be able to sustain their career as well as not having to wait to have children.

Training and competing

Training seems to have worked quite well for most of the athletes. Nevertheless, it was complicated and often required much planning. Despite this, competitions were often harder to manage for different reasons.

‘I thought I got it together quite well in everyday life, but it is to no use because when it comes to competitions, it does not work.’ (Alexandra)

‘You can say we have a tight schedule … Even though we have a fixed schedule, there can be changes from one week to the next, and I have said [at times] that I will probably not be able to practice. It is on us [the family] to try and solve the situation.’ (Alice)

‘The logistics around competition and training works well now … It would have helped to get the schedule earlier from the clubs and have no sudden changes.’ (Sabina)

‘Training gets complicated, but it is complicated going to the [grocery store] as well. The child is in the car seat, and I drag it around the training facility … It is no worse than that … But of course, I train less than before.’ (Sara)

Apart from one of the team sport athletes, training worked. It worked because they had help, from either a grandparent, a partner, or a nanny.

‘The only reason I was able to go for elite level after having a child is because my mother has been there for me … She has made it possible.’ (Alexandra)

‘My [partner] can be at home … and is a big part of everything. It means I do not have to think so much about it and can focus fully on my career.’ (Maja)

‘My [partner] has agreed to be the one who takes the biggest responsibility for the children.’ (Alice)

‘[My partner] sacrifices quite a lot for me to do this.’ (Sabina)

‘Babysitters have been the most deciding factor for it to work. Not paid babysitters … There is only one babysitter, so we are very dependent on that they can [babysit].’ (Sara)

‘I had to get a nanny quite quickly … I had to have that help, and we could afford to do it. I probably would not have been able to continue with sport if I had not had it [a nanny].’ (Diana)

‘I had my mother as my coach … it helps in the training environment that she could take [the child] … It is a special situation. You cannot expect to be able to put a baby carrier on the coach. It helps the situation, of course. My parents are an equal part in that I have been able to make this journey.’ (Iris)

‘The first years with both children, we had a nanny … It was also a bit odd and weird. But it was great for us.’ (Hilda)

For those who had jobs on the side, it worked because they had flexible jobs. If the job was not flexible, it would not have worked, as in the case of one of the team sport athletes who quit at elite level after having children.

‘It was the biggest reason I quit elite [sports]. I felt I would not have any time left at home if I was to work all days and then train just about every evening … It was not a hard decision.’ (Henry)

During the pandemic, this athlete made a comeback because it was possible to work from home.

‘It was three months. It worked because I worked from home during the pandemic … I was home during the day and worked and was with the family and then I could go away in the evening.’ (Henry)

Some had partners in the same sport at elite level, and for them, they either competed in every other competition or they brought the child with them and had someone watch the child.

‘If we wanted to compete together, we had to arrange for someone to come along … We have done one competition together with the child. A student … came with us, and we paid for travel expenses.’ (Rebecka)

‘It was no problem when we brought up the question. She was so small that the child could not be with the grandparents for a week. Today, [the child is older] and it is no problem, we fix a babysitter and then we go.’ (Sara)

‘We had a period when we high fived at the airport when we changed [over] and did every other weekend to be able to be home.’ (Diana)

Others either brought their partner on competitions, which was expensive or travelled without the child. Being at a competition alone with the child can be very difficult and made one athlete wonder if it was worth it.

‘I will probably not [compete in] international championships anymore … it is too hard, too difficult to make it work.’ (Alexandra)

Travelling alone and leaving the child at home was difficult but could also be associated with release.

‘I was away for a week [when the child was one] – first time away from the child. It was hard but nice, nice to know that it works without me.’ (Rebecka)

Another saw early that it would not work in the long run and started to prepare for life after elite sports.

‘When I was pregnant, I started other projects. I think I felt that this will not last, so I started other projects and started to prepare to slow down.’ (Diana)

Being away could also affect the financial situation, especially if the athlete’s partner must stay home from work to care for the children so the athlete can compete.

‘[When we lived abroad] … we struggled. When I went on national team camps, we had very little compensation, so we went in the red … From that situation came a big motivation to try to improve our conditions when we go away, so it [covers your expenses].’ (Sabina)

The athletes spend more time training than competing, but if competition does not work it is of no use continuing. One athlete talks about how it is not worth it. The investment costs more than what is gained. Several athletes report that the situation is strained. For some the resources are not enough and for others they are barely enough as in Hobfoll’s theory (1989). The work–family conflict is prominent when training and competing needs to fit in with the new family situation. The resources needed are time and money. Bad planning from the club affects the family, and if the family cannot adapt, it affects sports. The role expectations between parenthood and elite sport collide and there is role conflict (Katz and Kahn 1978). Having money creates opportunities. It is an important resource for the athletes. However, the biggest resource to help in this work–family conflict is social relations where the family often becomes the premier resource to make it work. As Hobfoll et al. write (1990) social support provide practical assistance.

Challenges

As we have seen in the previous section, the main issue that needs to be solved is finding someone to watch the child during training and competitions. There is no system in place that can provide solutions for this, neither in society nor sport. In Sweden, childcare is available when the child is one year old if you have a paid job or if you study. If you have a part-time job, you can only have the child in childcare for those hours you work (Skolverket 2023). If you are fortunate, you have a parent or partner who can provide childcare support, or you can afford to hire a nanny. If you do not have these possibilities, it becomes very difficult to combine elite sports with parenthood. If your practice times are on set schedules, your sport needs to be your paid job, especially with team sports. Individual sports can be more flexible regarding when you do your training, and therefore a job on the side seems to work better.

Another problem related to this has to do with personal finances. If you need to hire someone to help you when you compete, this costs money. Being on national team trips can also be a strain, as you do not make money on these trips. Therefore, if you live on the margins, going away to national team camps or competitions can be a financial loss.

There are even more challenges for the athletes. One is regarding sponsors.

‘It was hard talking to the sponsors about my pregnancy because I did not know how they would react. I worried more than I should have been … most of them were positive, but some were not … Some reacted a bit weird, like I should have known I was going to be pregnant and that I should have told them before, but you cannot know that before.’ (Hilda)

You miss many things by not being on the job market, like having a pension. There seems to be many disadvantages to being an elite athlete, and the Swedish sports system does not support their athletes with this.

‘I have been on the national team for 15 years and gathered zero in pension for it … you are considered to be entertainment. The government says that we should be good in sports, and Sweden should be prominent. We do not have anything for this.’ (Alexandra)

‘In Sweden you almost sacrifice more than you gain if you commit to sports. In some countries, it is a benefit. You get benefits from it, but in Sweden you postpone what you must do – educate yourself and make a living. That is a big challenge in Swedish sports.’ (Iris)

All of the athletes more or less talk about how there is a lack of knowledge around parenthood and elite sports. Some spoke about a need for knowledge about training during and after pregnancy, but other issues surrounding parenthood also came up.

‘There is still a lot of responsibility on the athlete. It makes it extra challenging – how do you do it?’ (Alice)

‘I have been questioned for taking out VAB [paid leave for when the child is sick and cannot go to preschool/school] …it is my legal right to “vabba” [be home]. You cannot tell me as an employer [that it is not]. Those who work in the organization have to learn the rules.’ (Alice)

In some cases, the federation and the association have done their best to help.

‘…I have had great help from the club. They took in experts…and they have solved it as good as possible financially…’ (Maja)

‘One time, the federation went in financially, like an ad hoc thing, when I panicked and said I do not know if I can … it costs too much … they went in and supported [me] financially. One time. And it helped at that time.’ (Sabina)

‘It was a lack of knowledge, not a lack of will. I think they thought it was fun and fascinating.’ (Hilda)

In other cases, the federation has not been supportive. For instance, some of the athletes would like discussions about this issue to feel more natural and be more open in the associations and in the federation. Some even spoke of negative attitudes and ignorance concerning the problems that arise for them.

‘I asked the federation if there was support, and there was not. It would have been great to cover an extra person on competitions; they almost thought it was a dumb question. [It is a] conservative and male-dominated sport … so not a surprising reaction.’ (Rebecka)

Other challenges include not only other people’s comments and opinions but also a clash with the ideas of motherhood.

‘Sometimes I have heard things like “you are selfish if you are away from your children”. Sport demands that you focus on it. It was often a clash with the mother role … When the children were bigger, I would hear, “I could never be away from my children like that”, like they tried to give me a guilty conscience for being away. It is like that – classic things.’ (Hilda)

‘There are a lot of opinions about girls who [do sports] while pregnant. A lot of hatred on social media.’ (Diana)

‘I could feel that more from women. For there are a lot who quit … and support their husband’s [career], and here I come in [my sporting outfit] … I could feel it, these looks. As a woman, you feel it very clearly: “It is easy for you who have a nanny that works 24 hours a day”’. (Diana)

‘Some people talked behind my back when I was pregnant and [competed] … old fashioned opinions … I had the feeling [from them] that it was more irresponsible for women to [compete] than for men who had children. Women were considered having greater responsibility towards the children than the men had.’ (Rebecka)

‘I have heard that it is not okay for me to bring my child because they [children] create a disturbance. Then I apologize, but that was the way it had to be. There can be these kinds of objections.’ (Sara)

Some sports may suffer from this situation more than others, especially team sports.

‘I think it affects [my sport] quite hard really … elite level fits those who have time, and it might fit those who are younger … When family life and parenthood come in, it competes directly with … elite level.’ (Henry)

Money is a resource that is threatened when sponsors risk pulling out their funding. Much depends on money to facilitate other things, such as equipment, travel, and accommodation (Hobfoll 1989). In light of this and other challenges lies the question of whether the investment is worth it. Even when they are celebrated as athletes, some of them are not employed and will not receive a pension. As Halbesleben et al. mention (2014) this can affect the athletes’ trust in the system, the resource signals. In addition, if they had lived on sponsor money, prize money, or scholarships, they will need a job after their career is over and therefore may need more education. Some of the athletes wonder about the balance of this investment and how this investment can be worthwhile. There are also laws that apply for workers, like VAB, that may not be applicable in elite sports. Here, family issues interfere with work and create time- as well as strain conflicts (Kossek, Turner, and Lee 2017). Another resource that is addressed here is knowledge. Lack of knowledge and the difficulties gaining access to information causes conflict. Asking and searching for information about training, competitions, adjustments, financial conditions, and other aspects have an effect on and add to the work–family conflict (Hobfoll 1989; Kossek, Turner, and Lee 2017).

Lastly, it is explained how social relations can cause a loss of resources and be an example of behaviour-based conflict. Hobfoll (1989) means that social relations can also cause loss of resources when relations drain energy or cause doubt. People in the athlete’s surroundings may question the athlete’s decision to combine elite sports and parenthood. In different ways, people make the athlete aware of their unconventional choice. It could be viewed as others highlighting a behaviour-based conflict, as in, the athletes are parents now and should not be ‘selfish’ like elite athletes need to be (Kossek, Turner, and Lee 2017).

Problems that can be solved?

The athletes have many ideas about what can be done. Their sport’s federation (or other organization) may have been mentioned, but not everyone saw this as something the federation could do anything about. It may be that the federation did not have the money or that the athlete just could not envision what the federation could possibly do. This outlook may vary depending on what sport the athlete competes in. Nevertheless, most of the athletes spent a great deal of time considering their options, and sometimes they did not ask for much.

‘When you have your child, then it is like [elite sports] is not for real anymore. Then you are not committed anymore. And it cannot be done. Because they [others] realize that it cannot be done. But no one thinks about what you [they] could do for it to work. It just does not exist.’ (Alexandra)

The athlete continues with examples of small but important things that could be done.

‘…just for someone to call the hotel and everything around and make sure it will work [would help].’ (Alexandra)

And sometimes a change in attitude will do much.

‘I would have liked for more understanding from the federation – another reply, at least, that they had seen the opportunities, tried, discussed it going forward, progress.’ (Rebecka)

‘…coaches and people in the organization who understand what it is like to have children [would help] … [They should] be problem solving.’ (Alice)

‘It is always at the minimum level … it [the help] is just because I complain, and they are too tired to listen to it. Otherwise, they had not prepared anything or helped at all.’ (Alexandra)

Financial conditions are a key aspect of this. For instance, financial support and contracts.

‘It is important that you keep your financial support. This is something that sports can improve.’ (Hilda)

‘There must be some security … what happens with the contract? How do we support them to come back? This is probably the most important thing – that there is a plan.’ (Maja)

And knowing what is acceptable regarding bringing children to competitions.

‘I miss clearer rules… [as in] “You can bring your children if you want to”. [So] that I do not always have to ask and be a burden. This is especially important if you are not completely secure, maybe you are new [in the squad].’ (Sabina)

The only man in the study says that we should talk more about how it is for men to combine sports and parenthood. Many agree that the issue needs to be discussed.

‘It must be discussed more. I want to stress that this will be more and more common.’ (Alexandra)

‘Many continue with sports longer now. You are a bit over 30, maybe 35 … it is hard for many women, I think. You want to start a family but not quit, and you get stressed.’ (Hilda)

‘When I quit after the Olympics … I was 30 and among the oldest. Now, many are over 30. Things happen, and you can be active longer.’ (Iris)

That combining elite sports and parenthood is becoming more common also makes it a gender equality issue.

‘It is clearly different times now. You should not have to be a man to be able to combine parenthood and sport. It should be the same opportunities. It should be possible to be a woman and have children [and have an elite sports career]. That is how it is today. Of course, you must find a system for that.’ (Iris)

One way to try and bring the issue forward is to talk about it in the media.

‘I tried to address everything and get a discussion around it.’ (Maja)

‘I have discussed it in many different contexts and did so for many years. I do not anymore, but I did, and lifted the issue in many ways.’ (Hilda)

Given that childcare is the big issue, several athletes put forward the idea of nannies paid by the club or federation.

‘It would have been amazing if there was a nanny, so I could bring one or two children … a nanny that the federation employed that the children knew, so you would feel secure as a parent…’ (Alice)

‘Sometimes I wished the federation had a hired nanny that we travelled with, just like we have a cook. And they send out the question before the trip – do you want the nanny to travel with us this time? Then you can notify them. The same [person] every time, someone who knows the children and we know the nanny – someone who is an educated nanny.’ (Sabina)

Parenthood and the challenges surrounding this is also part of a bigger issue. One of the athletes says that it all comes down to financial conditions because then they could pay for what they need. One of the athletes also sees a bigger picture that is problematic.

‘There are so many issues of importance in Swedish sports that are independent of whether you have children or not that would contribute to creating good opportunities for sport in Sweden and then generate better opportunities, regardless of whether you have children or not.’ (Iris)

When it comes to their investment, they see many things regarding time, money, and knowledge that would increase the resources (Hobfoll 1989). The athletes see how these resources could increase and how the investment would be worth it. A better attitude from the sports organizations and an offer from them to help would avoid strain-based conflicts. This would benefit the athletes greatly, as it would save time and relieve strain. If information were available, this would also affect time-based conflicts. Money could be saved by solving childcare challenges at competitions. This would also help avoid strain-based conflicts (cf Kossek, Turner, and Lee 2017). A supporting attitude from the sport organizations could be a resource signal, a sign to the athlete to trust the system to support them. This sign could increase their willingness to invest in their elite sport career even after they have become parents (Halbesleben et al. 2014).

Analysis

In this study, most athletes talked about conflicts related to their commitment to elite sports and their commitment to parenthood. This could be viewed as two different roles that collide (cf Katz and Kahn 1978), namely, there are work-to-family conflicts as well as family-to-work conflicts. Work (elite sports) interferes with family when the athlete is needed at practices on short notice or when they are expected to compete and be away from home for several days. Family interferes with work (elite sports) when children and partners need to come along on competitions and the athlete needs to focus on them as well. This creates time-based conflicts given that the two roles need time, and therefore valuable time must be taken from the other. This also leads to strain-based conflicts, as both sports and parenthood cause exhaustion, for example, from intensive training and sleep deprivation (cf Kossek, Turner, and Lee 2017).

Another interesting finding from the analysis is how the athletes relate to their resources (i.e. what the individual deems valuable). The athletes in this study handle their resources differently when it comes to keeping and increasing them, with much depending on current resources. The athletes want to gain a condition that includes both parenthood and elite sports. However, this requires investing resources, which involves risk (cf Hobfoll 1989). In the material, we can see, for example, that if the athlete needs a job in addition to competing in elite sports, and this job is not flexible, then it is less likely to work. The risk is that work-to-family conflicts will increase even more and perhaps jeopardize the condition of ‘a good family life’. If you have a flexible job, it might work; however, other resources are required, mainly social support (e.g. a family member who can help). Social support is a valuable resource for all the athletes, and when it is free, it can be the factor that allows the athlete to continue competing. When social support costs money, for example, when travelling with the athlete on competitions, it’s less likely to work. The athlete then needs to have the financial resources to pay for this on top of considering it a risk worth taking. As Halbesleben et al. (2014) explain, resource signals may be important here. Athletes need to have faith that this combination works and that there is a system in place to support them and catches them. The combination worked well for Rebecka, Hilda, Diana, Maja, and Iris because they had (in addition to social support) either financial resources or were full-time athletes. Therefore, one may conclude that only those who have the resources of being a full-time, paid athlete with social support and financial resources are the only ones who succeed, but that is not the case. For example, Sara was not a full-time athlete nor able to and willing to pay anyone to help during competitions but nevertheless made it work because she had faith in the system to help out. Here, the sporting environment (but not necessarily the sport organization) could assist and provide a few hours babysitting. It has also worked well for those whose partner was also an elite athlete, thus making playing in elite sports a family project. This is what McGannon, Tatarnic, and McMahon (2018) found about the distance runner who was coached by her partner. Therefore, when the partner or other family members are also in elite sports, it can be an advantage, like it was for Iris. Additionally, in Henry’s case, it did work for a few months when his job was flexible during the pandemic. Otherwise, it did not work because of time-based conflicts. If he were to pursue elite sports, he would not be able to see his family as much, and he felt it was not worth the investment.

Making it work—discussion

Previous research on motherhood and elite sports often found that athletes feel guilty for committing to sport when they ‘should’ be with their child/children (Dashper 2012; Palmer and Leberman 2009; Spowart and Pearson 2023). However, personally feeling guilty was not something the athletes in this study spoke about as being an issue. However, they expressed that others tried to make them feel guilty by, for example, saying, ‘I could never be away from my children like that’. In this study, feelings and identity were not addressed in the same way as many previous studies about elite athletes and parenthood; therefore, the issue of guilty conscience may not be comparable with previous research. However, the issue comes forth to some extent when discussing support. In Darroch and Hillsburg (2017) research, they mention that the partner’s support is most important and that this also can cause feelings of guilt for their sacrifice. This is also indicated in this study, particularly when sport interferes with family life or affects the family financially. The importance of family is evident in the study, regardless of whether it is the partner or the child’s grandparents.

Most athletes talked about a lack of knowledge in their sport’s association or federation. Parenthood during elite sports appears not to be on the sport organizations or federations’ agenda. However, some athletes report that the association/federation did the best they could and wanted to help, whereas others did not receive any sign of support at all. In Palmer and Leberman (2009) study, some athletes were similarly disappointed by the lack of support from the sports organizations, while others felt they got the help they needed.

As work–family conflict research states, support from the workplace is important to help ease the burden of the conflict (French et al. 2018). However, if the athlete is not being paid to compete and thus needs employment, both this study and previous studies show that this combination (work, family, and elite sports) is hard to maintain (Hellborg 2019). According to research, such as Hellborg (2019), this three-part conflict is also difficult for men and may lead to them moving or quitting elite sports (Hellborg 2019).

This issue is essentially about a lack of resources. The athletes need more resources, interpreted widely, as in Hobfoll’s (1989) theory. What would these increased resources for the athletes regarding time, money, and information cost the elite sport organizations? To change attitudes would not cost much and a simple phone call to check if the arena or the hotel is suitable for children would not cost much either. More information would require gathering all the relevant information and possibly putting it together in a document, which might incur a cost. Regarding nannies at competitions, this represents a bigger cost for the federations. Someone needs to be hired, and travel expenses must be paid. On the one hand, it would reduce the work–family conflict in elite sports considerably, especially for those who are not employed as athletes. In addition, those who quit elite sports because they do not see a combination as possible due to time and strain conflicts may not have to quit. On the other hand, a study about professional golfers who are mothers showed that the golfers productivity decreased after having children, despite that the LPGA tour provides childcare possibilities on the tour (Kalist 2008). Therefore, this solution may not eliminate the conflict completely.

This study focused on structural issues, such as time, financial conditions, and support. However, in the material, some challenges arose that show a more complex environment that the women talked about. They mention a conservative norm regarding women being elite athletes and parents, this norm is present in contact with their sport federation, with sponsors, with fellow athletes, and on social media. Often it is perceived by the women as critique for trying to do this combination. Even though a gender perspective was not the main focus of this study, gender is inevitable when discussing sport and when discussing parenthood.

Although these ten athletes have provided very different stories and situations, there are certain things they have in common. Almost everyone explained that the combination works because of another person’s support—often a person from their private life: a grandparent that can help or a partner who is willing to make sacrifices, or they have the means to hire someone. Not much indicates that the situation would have been possible without support from their families. Even paying a nanny is a family decision that needs to be supported by others in the family. There is nothing from the elite sport society/system that support athletes if they do not have a supporting family. One athlete had help from coaches who watched the child during competitions. However, they were also dependent on support from family when the child got older. This is not only a logistics problem but also financial, as it could be solved if they could afford to hire and bring a nanny to competitions. A bigger financial issue is income. If sport is their job that they are paid for, it is easier, partly because they do not need a job in addition to sports but also because, as an employee, their employer has certain responsibilities towards the athlete concerning insurance, the right to parental leave, and preschool. However, as is shown, not all sports clubs are aware of what responsibilities they have and what rights the athlete has as an employee, for instance, the right to be home from work to care for a sick child (VAB). If the athlete needs a job on the side, it must be flexible enough for the athlete to do in the evenings or on weekends if they need to train and compete.

It appears that good fortune is what makes the combination of being an athlete and having children work for these athletes. It works, despite the difficulties, because they have help or a flexible job. Although the sport organizations are sometimes supportive and do their best to help, they are not cited as the main reason why it can work.

Limitations

The aim was to interview both men and women to find out if they had more similar or more different experiences regarding combining elite sport and parenthood. Maybe women and men viewed support differently or had different experiences regarding sponsors. However, only one man participated. I wanted to include all the athletes I interviewed because they had so different experiences (even if some things were similar) so I viewed them primarily as elite athletes that were parents rather than mothers and fathers. Therefore, a gender perspective became less relevant than it would have been if half of the interviewees were men. But the fact that women were more interested in participating is also a result because it might indicate that these issues are more problematic for women or that women have thought more about these issues.

Conclusion

The purpose of this study was to analyse and problematize the possibilities and challenges of combining an elite sport career with parenthood. The study found that, before the athletes had children, they envisioned possibilities to come back to elite sports afterwards, mainly due to the experience of role models or the will to prove that it could be done. However, when the athletes became parents, they tell of a struggle to make it work. The question of childcare was the primary concern: who will take care of the child when the parent who is an athlete needs to train and compete? This combination can work if the athlete has support from family, for example, the athlete’s partner or the child’s grandparents. However, many of the athletes spoke of what they consider a better solution—one in which the sport organizations provide more support, for example, by having a supportive attitude, providing information and knowledge about how to combine elite sport and parenthood, and possibly assisting with childcare solutions.

It would be fruitful for future research to investigate the sport organizations’ perspective. What are their views? What are they currently doing? And do they even see it as their responsibility to provide solutions for athletes to be able to combine elite sports with parenthood? In this study, most of the interviewees were women, but the men’s perspective is also important, as it is underrepresented compared to women’s perspective. In addition, it would be useful to research the perspectives of the athletes who ended their careers before having children or because of their family situation. What was their reason for not coming back or quitting? And would they have tried to combine elite sports with parenthood if they thought it was possible?

Acknowledgements

Thanks to The Swedish Research Council for Sport Science for funding this study.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Funding

Research funded by The Swedish Research Council for Sport Science, Sweden.