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Abstract
This article brings a new taxonomy and collation of intervention and disruption methods that can be applied to the online stolen data market. These online marketplaces are used to buy and sell identity and financial information, as well as the products and services that enable this economy. This article combines research findings from computer science with criminology to provide a multidisciplinary approach to crimes committed with the use of technology.
Acknowledgements
The work would not have been possible without the invaluable assistance of Richard Clayton, Ross Anderson, Mike Bond, Ian Goldberg and Jeunese Payne.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
Notes
1. Brenner, “Fantasy Crime”; Holt and Bossler, “An Assessment”; and Wall, “Maintaining Order and Law.”
2. Holt and Blevins, “Examining Sex Work”; and Sanders, “Selling Sex.”
3. Burns, Whitworth, and Thompson, “Assessment Law Enforcement Preparedness”; and Newman and Clarke, Superhighway Robbery.
4. Bocij, Cyberstalking: Harassment; Reyns, Henson, and Fisher, “Stalking in the Twilight”; and Finn, “Survey of Online Harassment.”
5. Bachmann, “Deciphering the Hacker Underground”; Holt, “Subcultural Evolution”; and Schell and Dodge, The hacking of America.
6. Franklin et al., “An Inquiry”; Holt and Lampke, “Exploring Stolen Data Markets”; Hutchings and Holt, “A Crime Script Analysis”; and Peretti, “Data Breaches.”
7. For example, Ponemon Institute, Cost of Data Breach.
8. Higgins, “Target, Neiman Marcus Data”; Pauli, “Oz Privacy Comish Says”; and Seals, “2014 so far.”
9. Franklin et al., “An Inquiry”; Holt and Lampke, “Exploring Stolen Data Markets”; Peretti, “Data Breaches”; Motoyama et al., “Analysis of Underground Forums”; and Wehinger, “The Dark Net.”
10. Wehinger, “The Dark Net”; and Symantec Corporation, Internet Security Threat Report.
11. Holt and Lampke, “Exploring Stolen Data Markets”; and Peretti, “Data Breaches.”
12. Franklin et al., “An Inquiry”; and Holt and Lampke, “Exploring Stolen Data Markets.”
13. see Holt, Smirnova, and Chua, “Revenues and Profits”; Ponemon Institute, Cost of Data Breach; Symantec Corporation, Internet Security Threat Report.
14. Franklin et al., “An Inquiry”; and Holt and Smirnova, Examining the Structure, Organization.
15. For example, Peretti, “Data Breaches”; and Poulsen, Kingpin: The True Story.
16. Glenny, Darkmarket: Cyberthieves, Cybercops.
17. Rawlinson, “Websites linked to $500m.”
18. See Peretti, “Data Breaches.”
19. Franklin et al., “An Inquiry”; Holt and Lampke, “Exploring Stolen Data Markets”; Holt and Smirnova, Examining the Structure, Organization; Motoyama et al., “Analysis of Underground Forums”; Peretti, “Data Breaches”; and Wehinger, “The Dark Net.”
20. Hutchings and Holt, “A Crime Script Analysis.”
21. Chiu, Leclerc, and Townsley, “Crime Script Analysis of”; Cornish, “Crime as Scripts”; Hancock and Laycock, “Organised Crime and Crime”; Leontiadis and Hutchings, “Scripting the Crime”; and Morselli and Roy, “Brokerage Qualifications.”
22. See note 20 above.
23. Cornish, “Procedural Analysis of Offending.”
24. Levi and Maguire, “Reducing and Preventing Organized.”
25. Cohen and Felson, “Social Change and Crime.”
26. Cornish and Clarke, “Understanding Crime Displacement.”
27. Gibbs, Crime, Punishment and Deterrence.
28. Jacobs, “Deterrence and Deterrability.”
29. See note 27 above.
30. Chiu, Leclerc, and Townsley, “Crime Script Analysis of.”
31. Leclerc, Wortley and Smallbone, “Getting into the Script.”
32. Hancock and Laycock, “Organised Crime and Crime.”
33. See note 30 above.
34. See note 31 above.
35. See note 32 above.
36. See note 20 above.
37. See note 25 above.
38. See note 24 above.
39. Ibid.
40. Bossler and Holt, “The Effect of Self-Control”; Bossler and Holt, “On-Line Activities, Guardianship”; Holt and Bossler, “An Assessment”; Wall, :Maintaining Order and Law”; and Holt and Bossler, “Examining the Applicability.”
41. For example, Peretti, “Data Breaches”; and Wall, Cybercrime: The Transformation.
42. Garland, “Limits of the Sovereign.”
43. Sunshine and Taylor, “Role of Procedural Justice.”
44. Grabosky, “Secrecy, Transparency and Legitimacy.”
45. Tyler, “Enhancing Police Legitimacy.”
46. See note 44 above.
47. See note 43 above.
48. Furnell, Cybercrime: Vandalizing the Information; and Holt, Bossler, and Fitzgerald, “Examining State and Local.”
49. Holt, Bossler, and Fitzgerald, “Examining State and Local.”
50. See also Wilson, Walsh, and Kleuber, “Trafficking in Human Beings.”
51. See note 32 above.
52. Smith, Wolanin, and Worthington, e-Crime Solutions and Crime.
53. Holt, Blevins, and Kuhns, “Examining Diffusion and Arrest.”
54. Peacock and Friedman, “Automation and Disruption.”
55. Herley and Florêncio, “Nobody Sells Gold”; and Wehinger, “The Dark Net.”
56. See note 20 above.
57. Ibid.
58. Stajano, “Pico: No More Passwords!”
59. Ibid.
60. Mirante and Cappos, Understanding Password Database Compromises.
61. See note 54 above.
62. See note 20 above.
63. The Economist, “Banks and Fraud.”
64. See note 54 above.
65. Ibid.
66. Ibid.
67. Ibid.
68. Ibid.
69. Ibid.
70. See note 20 above.
71. Attorney-General’s Department, “Document Verification Service.”
72. Maurushat, Data Breach Notification Law.
73. Romanosky, Telang, and Acquisti, “Do Data Breach Disclosure.”
74. Ibid.
75. See note 20 above.
76. Western Union, “What is Considered Valid.”
77. Franklin et al., “An Inquiry”; Holt and Lampke, “Exploring Stolen Data Markets”; Hutchings and Holt, “A Crime Script Analysis”; and Motoyama et al., “Analysis of Underground Forums.”
78. Samani, Paget, and Hart, Digital Laundry.
79. Newman and Clarke, Superhighway Robbery.
80. Hoe, Kantarcioglu, and Bensoussan, “A Game Theoretical Analysis.”
81. Akerlof, “The Market for ‘Lemons’.”
82. Franklin et al., “An Inquiry.”
83. See note 80 above.
84. Holt, Chua, and Smirnova, “Exploration of the Factors.”
85. See note 82 above.
86. Holt and Smirnova, Examining the Structure, Organization; and Hutchings and Holt, “A Crime Script Analysis.”
87. Herley and Florêncio, “Nobody Sells Gold.”
88. See note 20 above.
89. McCalley, Wardman, and Warner, “Analysis of Back-Doored”; and Chu, Holt, and Ahn, Examining the Creation, Distribution.
90. Bangeman, “Slowloris DDoS Tool.”
91. Goodin, “Bombshell TrueCrypt Advisory.”
92. Hollinger, “Crime by Computer”; Hutchings, Theory and Crime; and Skinner and Fream, “Social Learning Theory Analysis.”
93. Smith, Cross-Border Economic Crime.
94. Ibid.
95. Science and Technology Committee, Personal Internet Security.
96. Brown et al., Contribution of Financial Investigation.
97. Christin, “Traveling the Silk Road.”
98. Afroz et al., “Doppelgänger Finder.”
99. See note 20 above.
100. Ibid.
101. McCusker, Review of Anti-Corruption Strategies.
102. Ibid.
103. Smith and Jorna, “Corrupt Misuse of Information.”
104. Murdoch and Anderson, “Tools and Technology.”
105. Ibid.
106. Coordination Centre for TLD RU, “The Terms and Conditions.”
107. See note 104 above.
108. See note 16 above.
109. Martin, “LulzSec Hacker Exposed.”
110. Biryukov, Pustogarov, and Weinmann, “Trawling for Tor Hidden”; Christin, “Traveling the Silk Road”; Jansen et al., “The Sniper Attack”; Murdoch, “Hot or Not”; and Øverlier and Syverson, “Locating Hidden Servers.”
111. Poulsen, “Visit the Wrong Website.”
112. Schneier, “How the NSA Attacks.”
113. McCoy et al., “Shining Light in Dark.”
114. Menn, “Talk on Cracking Internet.”
115. See note 16 above.
116. Kravets, “Are the FBI and ‘Weev’”; Kravets, “US Says It Can Hack”; and Krebs, “Silk Road Lawyers Poke.”
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Notes on contributors
Alice Hutchings
Dr Alice Hutchings is Research Associate at the Computer Laboratory. A criminologist, her research interests include understanding cybercrime offenders, and the prevention, intervention and disruption of online crime.
Thomas J. Holt
Thomas J. Holt is Associate Professor in the School of Criminal Justice at Michigan State University whose research focuses on computer hacking, malware, and the role of the Internet in facilitating all manner of crime and deviance. His work has been published in various journals including Crime and Delinquency, Deviant Behavior, the Journal of Criminal Justice and Youth and Society.