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ABSTRACT
This paper investigates and argues the modes of self-presentation established and kept by Guru Gobind Singh in the late seventeenth century not only defied Mughal convention and law, but also came to influence regional styles of dress and other aspects of courtly fashion in the Jammu court during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, closely attending the changes in the art historical record of both the Sikh and Dogra court during this two hundred year period, as well as the travelogues of several important Europeans who visited the area during Maharaja Ranjit Singh. In doing so, this study will seek to rethink how the conventions of Sikh culture, while initially ignored and censured by surrounding powers, spread and reshaped the styles of dress, and ultimately the art historical record of surrounding, Mughal strongholds.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Arvind Pal Mandair and Nathaniel Gallant for editorial work, scholarly advice and support. I would also like to thank original reviewer for valuable comments and suggestions for modifying this paper.
Disclosure Statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
Notes
1 Sukarchakia leader Maha Singh, exchanged turbans (dastar) with Brajraj Dev in dastar-badli ceremony for brotherhood. Exchanging of turbans and grant of khillats were the common traditions of India, promoted for honouring someone.
2 Totally distinct style of turban with some alteration in Jahangiri style stripped turban with a narrow band tied on front, rarely seen in Punjab during seventeenth century. For resemblance, see ‘Catherine (Citation1983), fig. 2, portrait of Raja Hari Sen of Mandi’. Also see Chandigarh Museum, acc. no. 2712.
3 For the young aged original portrait of Guru Tegh Bahadur, see Singh (Citation1967), 84–85 and for Dhaka portrait see frontispiece, Singh (Citation1967). In both portraits, Guru appears in Shah Jahani style broad band turban.
4 In the childhood portrait of tenth Guru, he is also shown in band turban like his father.
5 See Singh and Singh (Citation2012) for the later portrait of tenth Guru commissioned by Mandi ruler. For another seventeenth-century portrait of tenth Guru commissioned by his wife Mata Sundri ji see Padam (Citation2000). Also see the portrait of Guru Gobind Singh preserved at Chandigarh Museum Acc.no. F-49, perhaps copy of the original portrait commissioned by Mata Sundri ji with some Kangra elements.
6 ‘Dumaala’ is a style of turban, which combines two turbans, a small turban under a big turban usually worn by the Sikhs for the protection of head in the battlefield. Even today ‘Dumaala’ turbans are popular among Akali Nihangs.
7 In shamla turban, the last edge of the turban remains loose over shoulders.
8 Archer. 1973. Vol. II. Jammu, Plate 35.
9 See Goswamy (Citation1961, 298). The relation of Durranis with Raja Ghammand Chand of Kangra also influenced the turbans of Kangra rulers, which has an unusual feature of ‘a tall kullah-like projection in the centre, around which the cloth is wrapped. It is likely that the fashion was taken from the Durranis whose intimate connection with Ghamand Chand Katoch is known’. Also see Archer (Citation1973). Vol. II. Jammu, Plate 34, in which Balwant Singh is shown in Kullah turban and Afghani suite-salwar (during 1750), while inspecting a horse.
10 Archer (Citation1973). Vol. II. Jammu, Plates 60, 64, 65.
11 Archer (Citation1973). Vol. II. Jammu, Plates 8.
12 Literal meaning of bunga is fort, which is used for heavy and big size turbans.
13 Also see Archer (Citation1973). Vol. II. Jammu, Plate 29, ‘The Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah, receiving a courtier’, 1746, in which courtiers is without beard and mustachios.
14 Archer (Citation1973). Vol. II. Jammu, plate 35.
15 To see the distinctness of shaven beards and unshaven beards see Archer. 1973. Vol. II. Jammu, Plates 60, 65, 66, 67 in which Brijraj Dev is in unshaven beard and in plates 73, 74, 75 Raja Ranbir is also in unshaven beard.
16 See British Museum, Museum no. 1922,1214,0.1.
17 In this painting of Jahangir Nama, a man is standing in foreground in transparent robe and blue coloured payajama is shown in sword-belt over shoulder.
18 See Archer (Citation1973). Vol. II. Jammu, Plates 1, 8, 11, 24 (i), 31, 32, 41, 56, 57, 58, 59, 61, 62, 63, 65.
19 Also see portraits of misaldars, Museum no. IS.128-1955, Victoria and Albert Museum and Acc. No. 60.543, National Museum, New Delhi.
20 See Archer (Citation1973) Vol. II. Jammu, Plates 21, 60, 64.
21 Victoria and Albert Museum, Museum no. IS.128-1955.
22 Chandigarh Museum, Acc.no. 296.
23 See for Dogra attendants, Philadelphia Museum, Accession no. 1996-120-6.
24 The robes of Guru Hargobind were of some distinct style with embroidery on chest along with two stripes appear over shoulders and cover the chest. This style became stable for the robes of Guru Hargobind till the end of nineteenth century. For the original portrait see, Singh and Singh (Citation2012), 115 and 190 and for copied work see Randhawa (Citation1970), 16–17, figures. 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12.
25 See Victoria and Albert Museum, no. IS.188-1951. Also see Accession no. 1994.377, Metropolitan Museum of Art.
26 See Victoria and Albert Museum, nos. IS.111-1953 and IS.114-1953.
27 Chandigarh Museum, Acc. no. 364.
28 See the portrait of Guru Hargobind in which he wore a shield in Mughal style, see Randhawa (Citation1970, 17, fig. 12).
29 See accession no. 17.2708, Museum of Fine arts, Boston, ‘Assembly of Sikhs and Sansar Chand of Kangra’ in which a Sikh misaldar is seated in the right side at last, wearing a shield on the back. Guler Raja Govardhan Chand also can be seen in black shield strapped on back which is also rare in Guler paintings of mid-eighteenth century, see portraits of him, acc. nos. 189 and 190 at Chandigarh museum.
30 See Archer. 1973. Vol. II. Jammu, Plates 1–42.
31 Walters Museum, no. W.624.128A.
32 Islamic art from the collection of Edwin Binney 3rd, Washington, DC, 1966, fig. 28.
33 See Museum no. W.624.128A, The Walters museum, Mughal paintings of Delhi and Lahore atelier during the last years of Emperor Akbar, umbrella was a rare element of Mughal painting. Probably the fashion was adopted by the royal Sikhs and influenced the hill paintings.
34 See Archer. 1973. Vol. II. Jammu, Plates 25, 26 and 46, in which Balwant Singh is standing outside the palace without umbrella but in plate 41, he is inspecting the construction of a building, holding a small umbrella in his own hand, which is of different style as against big and long-poled Sikh umbrellas. In plate 47, an attendant is walking behind Raja Balwant Singh holding a pataka. In plate 48, Mian Mukund Dev is also riding without umbrella.
35 See Archer (Citation1973). Vol. II. Jammu, Plate 34, in which Balwant Singh is seated on a golden throne.
36 Kaur and Sharma (Citation2016b).
37 The beautiful furniture of Maharaja Ranjit Singh’s court is still preserved at Victoria and Albert Museum, London, and Lahore Museum, Pakistan.
38 See Victoria and Albert Museum, nos. IS.114-1953 and IS.115-1953.
39 See Archer (Citation1973). Vol. II. Jammu, Plates in which square rugs are used in portraits of Jammu from 1690 to 1850, but along with square rugs, oval rugs were also popular, see Sikh and Jammu paintings in Victoria and Albert Museum, no. IS.13-1956.