Education in Post-war Bosnia: The Nexus of Societal Security, Identity and Nationalism

Abstract

The notion of security in international relations has been broadened and reconceptualized and now rightly includes an understanding of education as a potential security threat, not just a socializing tool. In post-war Bosnia-Herzegovina, the education system is decentralized, politicized and nationalistic, and promotes competing visions and identities of Bosnia. Some students attend segregated schools, while almost all study only with others from their same ethnonational group and learn from a mono-ethnic curriculum that does not foster understanding or tolerance of others, but breeds suspicion. This paper argues that these educational practices constitute a societal security dilemma. Many Bosnian Muslims, Croats and Serbs use the education system to gain rights and security for their group, which is viewed by others as a potential threat to their own security and identity within a fractured state. This paper shows that while these attempts to reinforce group security and identity (and increase power) may be beneficial to the group and nationalist leaders themselves, they paradoxically may have negative consequences for the security of other groups and for the security and stability of the Bosnian state itself, understood in terms of national cohesiveness and territorial integrity.

Notes

Most observers of the Bosnian national elections of 3 October 2010 have concluded that an ethnonational divide still exists and political compromise will be difficult. The election resulted in a tripartite presidency that now includes a Serb representative who is set on greater separation and decentralization (Nebojša Radmanović), while the moderate Bosniak (Bakir Izetbegović) and the re-elected Croat representative (Željko Komšić) are more supportive of unity. For recent articles and analysis on the election results, see Bilefsky (2010), Hadžović (2010), and Tanner (2010).

To simplify the arguments, I shall use the term human rights because it is the more accessible term in the literature and can be considered broadly to include rights that members of groups may call for, called group, collective, or minority rights; these distinctions will be noted later, but are generally beyond the scope of this paper. See Kymlicka (1995a, 1995b) and Shapiro & Kymlicka (1997); cf. Parekh (1997). See also Donnelly (2002). The protection of group (or collective) rights can aid in the prevention of conflict and promotion of security broadly conceived—at the individual, group, domestic and interstate levels. See Chandler (1999) and Swimelar (2001).

See also: International Crisis Group (2009).

The Federation is primarily comprised of Croats (Catholic) and Bosniaks. Bosniaks is the generally acceptable term for Bosnian Muslims, although it is still contested by some secular Bosnians who are not of Serb or Croat background because the appellation has a religious connotation.

The district of Brčko is under its own control and has its own international supervisor. Its education system and population is much more multi-ethnic than in the entities. Nevertheless, there have been problems with segregation there as well. See, for example, Perry (2003).

Author interview, Claude Kieffer, January 2007, Sarajevo, Bosnia.

Ibid.

From the documentary ‘Two Schools Under One Roof’, produced by Stiftung Schüler Helfen Leben in Sarajevo, Bosnia, 2009.

The international community represents the numerous states (as part of the Peace Implementation Council) and international organizations that govern Bosnia. This article will not examine the extensive role of the IC in education; a separate article will examine this aspect.

http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/enlargement/western_balkans/r18012_en.htm

See European Commission Progress Report on Bosnia, 2009, available online at: http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/press_corner/key-documents/reports_oct_2009_en.htm

See United Nations Development Program, Human Development Report, p. 24, available online at: http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr1994/

Regarding the former Yugoslavia in particular, scholars have looked at different sociocultural arenas, in addition to education, that have security implications. For example, Sabrina Ramet has examined how religious institutions and leaders from all ethnonational groups were instrumental in promoting nationalism at the start of the war, whether it be prohibitions on integrating or, more directly, the physical destruction of houses of worship. Music was also an arena for reinforcing identity claims and promoting nationalism. See Ramet (1999, chapters 5, 6, 7, 11). Others examine how tensions over cultural and public symbols (e.g. street names), national symbols (e.g. flags), language and the teaching of history have security and identity-related goals. See Torsti (2004).

Links between education and security have clearly been made recently in terms of the management of race/ethnic relations and terrorism. As noted above in relation to socialist Yugoslavia, education has always been key for authoritarian regimes to maintain power.

Constitution of UNESCO, available online at: http://www.icomos.org/unesco/unesco_constitution.html

Translation by author.

See the failed state index, available online at: http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2010/06/21/2010_failed_states_index_interactive_map_and_rankings

Furthermore, the percentage of Bosnian Serbs agreeing with the statement that ‘All groups can live peacefully together’ was 31% in 2001 (up from 13% in 1995), while 62% of Croats and 94% of Bosniaks agreed with the statement (Pickering, 2007, p. 140), which is surprising since Bosniaks were the most victimized by the war, but not surprising since Serbs and to a lesser extent Croats are most intent on preserving a separate ethnonational identity at the expense of a Bosnian identity.

This phenomenon occurs in the decentralized Federation, but not in Republika Srpska because it is one governing unit. However, the use of a mono-ethnic curriculum occurs across the country, not just in the Federation.

Report by the Working Group for Analysis of the ‘Two Schools Under One Roof’ Phenomenon', April 2009 (in possession of author, from OSCE). This report shows many different variations of this—some aspects of learning together, some separate, some schools legally unified and separate, some legally separate.

The three cantons in the Federation where ‘two schools under one roof’ is prevalent are Central Bosnia, Hercegovina-Neretva and Zenica-Doboj. There are some distinctions and differences between so-called segregated schools. For more information, see the Report by the Working Group for Analysis of the ‘Two Schools Under One Roof’ Phenomenon', April 2009 (in possession of author, from OSCE). See also Clark (2010).

In one school in Doboj, the front door was set on fire to protest about the mandated administrative unification of the school. See Bozić (2006, p. 328).

Author interview with Claude Kieffer, OSCE Education Director, in January 2007, Sarajevo, Bosnia.

The linkage between the right to return and the right to education is important because sustainable return can be accomplished only if families return and are invested in the communities and in the school system.

MSNBC News (2009) A generation of ethnically overfed pupils, 23 August, available online at: http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/32527058/

Ibid.

Translation by author. In fact, at the request of the American Embassy, Martin Luther King Jr's son, Martin Luther King III, visited a classroom in Stolac to talk about segregation and human rights; Croat students sat in front, while Bosniaks sat at the back. ‘A generation of ethnically overfed pupils’ MSNBC (23 August 2009), available online at: http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/32527058/ns/world_news-europe/t/generation-ethnically-overfed-pupils/(accessed 27 January 2012).

The international community along with local authorities agreed on a curriculum that is 70% in common with 30% reserved for the different ‘national’ or ‘non-contentious subjects’. However, in practice many of the ‘2 in 1’ schools have all subjects and classes separated. See OSCE (2005).

From the documentary ‘Two Schools Under One Roof’ (2009).

The Bosnian political structure and constitution are centrally concerned with the three constituent peoples, thus minority groups and mixed identity individuals are considered ‘others’. A recent European Court of Human Rights ruling requires this discrimination to be rectified. While the Roma, in particular, have clearly suffered socio-economic deprivation and discrimination in Bosnia, their main educational concern appears to be access. Their concerns do not fit with the societal security dilemma examined here. On the Roma and education, see Edwards (2005).

Torsti, ‘History Textbooks and the Everyday Dealing with a Past Full of Conflict: Some Experiences of Young Bosnians’, available online at: www.eustory.de/root/img/pool/.../EUSTORY_AGA_2002_Torsti.pdf (part of dissertation).

Author interview with Claude Kieffer, OSCE Education Director, in January 2007, Sarajevo, Bosnia.

From author communication with Sanna Heikkinen of the OSCE Education Department in Sarajevo, Bosnia (3 September 2010).

‘Bosnia Serb Government Rapped Over Referendum Push’, RFE/RL News, 27 January 2010, available online at: http://www.rferl.org/content/Bosnia_Serb_Government_Rapped_Over_Referendum_Push/1941320.html; ‘Bosnian Serb MPs Approve Vote on Scrapping State Court‘, Balkan Insight, 14 April 2011, available online at: http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/article/bosnian-serb-mps-ok-referendum-on-scrapping-war-crimes-court

See also ‘TV debate condemns Bosnian Serb “genocide rhetoric”‘, BBC News, 20 July 2009.

Stated by Kieffer in OSCE BiH (2009). Also from numerous comments made during the author's fieldwork in Bosnia.

While there has been no official census in Bosnia since the end of the war, the estimate according to the US CIA Factbook states that Croats make up 14%, Bosniaks 48% and Serbs 37%, in addition to small numbers of minorities.

From the documentary ‘Two Schools Under One Roof’ (2009).

Ibid.

I thank an anonymous reviewer for stressing the points in this paragraph.

In Srebrenica, for example, Prijatelji Srebrenice is a group of multi-ethnic youths working together on numerous community projects.

From the documentary ‘Two Schools Under One Roof’ (2009).

See, for example, S. Šeherčehajić (2007), br. 10, str. 40, 11 October.

Scope and space prevent me from exploring how the international community has perhaps, through their rhetoric and actions after 2001, securitized education and how this has interacted with the local environment and local leaders. This idea will be explored in future related research.

This is difficult politically, especially in a country with an official 40% unemployment rate. From the documentary ‘Two Schools Under One Roof’ (2009).

Kieffer in OSCE BiH (2009). Also from numerous comments made during the author's fieldwork in Bosnia.

Space and the scope of this particular paper prevent me from examining the dozens of programs, reforms, initiatives, and more that have helped to make education more constructive. A separate article in progress examines these efforts, particularly those by the international community. The following citations provide a varied survey of some of these efforts and examples: Bozić (2006), Clark (2010), Haider (2009), Sivac-Bryant (2008) and Torsti (2009).