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Abstract
Fighting in Kosovo, Serbia, and Macedonia ended with internationally-sponsored settlements aimed at constituting unified states, but participatory politics by ethnic groups differed afterwards. This study asks how institutional mechanisms of statebuilding led to disparate forms of participation at different levels of governance. The principle conclusion is that both participation and ways of contesting government policies or actions are conditioned by the institutional means for ethnic elite actors to access distributable patronage. Providing ethnic elites with distributable resources allows them to act as brokers between the state and the ethnic group, linking their own political positions with participation. This in turn secures the support of key players, discourages parochial opposition, and marginalizes spoilers.
Notes
1 Albanian and Slavic spellings used where appropriate.
2 Zartman (Citation2003) defines a ‘conflict region’ as a specific group of states in which state collapse and conflict dynamics in one leads to conflict in its neighbours, and similarly resolution efforts are diffused across the group of states.
3 ‘Kosovo Serb Government Members and Offices Given’ Beta [Serbian], 30 Nov. 1999.
4 ‘Kosovo Serb Leader Criticizes UN, Kfor for Rejecting Serb Force, Cantons’ Beta [Serbian], 20 Oct. 1999.
5 Kosovo Central Election Commission (CEC).
6 ‘Serbia Operates in Kosova With |Around 1,000 Security Troops’ Koha Ditore [Albanian], 16 Nov. 2012
7 ‘Serbian Premier Announces Reorganization of the Coordination Centre’ Beta [Serbian], 31 May 2004; ‘Serb Official Urges Boycott of Kosovo Government’ Kontakt Plus [Serbian], 12 Dec. 2007; ‘Serbian Coordination Centre Advises Boycott of Kosovo Elections’ B92 [Serbian], 28 Jul. 2004.
8 ‘Official Says Serbia not to Cooperate with Serbs Contesting Kosovo Elections’ Glas Javnosti [Serbian], 11 Nov. 2009.
9 ‘Patriotic Robbery’ Insajder [Serbian], 12 Nov. 2012.
10 ‘Kosovo Serb Mayor Seeks Government’s Support for New Municipality’ Koha Ditore [Albanian] 28 Dec. 2009; and, ‘Power Struggle Between Rival Kosovo Serb Local Authorities Continues’ B92 [Serbian], 18 Jan. 2010.
11 ‘Anarchy in Gracanica’ Glas Javnosti [Serbian], 11 Jan. 2010.
12 Text of Brussels Agreement, April 2013.
13 Matching of electoral results with parallel Serb leaders identified in: ‘Serbia Dissolves Serb Assemblies in Northern Kosovo’ Politika [Serbian] 11 Sept. 2013.
14 Mayoral profiles: ‘These People Pull Strings’ Blic [Serbian] 2 Dec. 2011.
15 Kosovo National Audit Office, Report 15 Feb. 2017; ‘Serbian-funded Kosovo Housing Estate Sparks Political Row’ BIRN, 27 Mar. 2019.
16 ‘Srpska Lista Scores Landslide Victory in North Kosovo Polls’ BIRN, 20 May 2019.
17 ‘Bombs and Bullets: Fear and Loathing in North Kosovo’ BIRN, 16 Jan. 2019.
18 Letter from Riza Halimi to Boris Tadić, published in Koha Ditore [Albanian], 4 Aug. 2004.
19 Albanian Party Leader Says Boycott of Local Assembly Goes On’ FoNet [Serbian], 4 Sept. 2003; ‘Albanians in Southern Serbia Demand Autonomous Area’ FoNet [Serbian], 29 Jul. 2004; and, ‘South Serbia Albanian Leader to Boycott Institutions’ Beta [Serbian], 9 Jan. 2005.
20 ‘Largest Ethnic Albanian Party in Southern Serbia to Boycott Mayoral Poll’ Beta [Serbian], 17 May 2006.
21 ‘Ethnic Albanians in South Serbia to Boycott Referendum on New Constitution’ Mina [Serbian], 10 Oct. 2006.
22 ‘Ethnic Albanian Party Head Explains Poll Boycott’ FoNet [Serbian] 15 Jan. 2007.
23 ‘South Serbia Albanians Continue Boycott of State's Coordination Body’ B92 [Serbian], 18 Dec. 2007.
24 BKTV [Albanian]; Beta, 17 May, 2006; RTS [Serbian], 7 Dec. 2010.
25 ‘Albanian Party Decides to Field its Candidates for Serbian Parliamentary Poll,’ FoNet [Serbian], 3 Apr. 2008.
26 ‘Albanians, Serbs Form Multiethnic Local Government in Bujanovac’ RTS [Serbian], 6 Dec. 2010; ‘New Party Tops Polls in South Serbia’s Bujanovac’ Balkan Insight, 8 May 2012
27 Coordination Body News Archive, updated 29 Jul. 2020.
28 ‘Serbia Albanians Rally Against Monument to Police’ BIRN, 1 Feb. 2013.
29 ‘EULEX Investigating Eight Terrorism Cases in Kosovo’ Koha Ditore [Albanian], 19 Oct. 2013.
30 ‘Albanian Policemen Seek Transfer to Non-Albanian Settlements’ Fakti [Albanian], 2 Oct. 2003.
31 ‘Mixed Police Patrols Still Blocked in Negotino Area’ MIA [Macedonian], 19 Apr. 2002.
32 ‘Clashes Erupt Between Albanian Factions’ RFERL, 28 Mar. 2002.
33 ‘DUI Refused To Discuss Appointment of New Police Chief’ Makfax [Macedonian], 17 Jan. 2008; ‘Macedonia Village Boycotts Police’ BIRN, 24 Jan. 2008.
34 ‘Ethnic Violence Simmers in Macedonia’ BIRN, 11 Mar. 2012.
35 ‘‘Albanian Paramilitaries’ Claim Macedonia Govt Attack’ BIRN, 14 Apr. 2015
36 ‘Fruits of Albanian Revolution in Macedonia’ Koha Jone [Albanian], 17 Oct. 2017.
37 ‘Macedonia’s DUI Mayors Suspect ‘Revenge’ Inspections’ BIRN, 1 Feb. 2017.