Multiple Migration Flows of Romanians

Abstract

Most studies on international migration examine population movement between a country of origin and a destination. This article aims to show that migrants often change destinations, a less studied pattern of ‘multiple migrations’. This article explores how such migration occurs and analyses the variables accounting for it. Drawing on qualitative fieldwork research amongst Romanian migrants in Portugal, the article concludes that the growth in multiple migrations of Romanian migrants throughout Europe can be explained by a combination of migration policies and social networks, mediated by migrants’ level of education and type of occupation at the destination.

Key Words:

• Multiple migrations
• Further migration
• Social networks
• Romania
• Migration policies

Acknowledgements

The article is dedicated to Professor Michael Bommes. The research at the base of this article was conducted within the project C2008-FCSH-CESNOVA-M-Faculdade de Ciências Sociais e Humanas-UNL, funded by the Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT) in Portugal. The author would like to thank Professor Margarida Marques for her availability to discuss methodology and to read this article at various stages, and the two anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments.

Notes

1. International migration existed long before 1989 with the first major flows in the late nineteenth century. However, the communist period was associated with a low number of emigrants fleeing political persecution (for more details see Michalon and Nedelcu 2010).

2. The Schengen Area comprises the territories of 25 European countries that have implemented the Schengen Agreement signed in 1985. This area is characterised by no internal border controls. The Schengen area includes all but two of the old EU member states – Ireland and the UK – as well as three non-EU member states – Iceland, Norway and Switzerland. The EU member states that are not yet part of Schengen are Bulgaria, Cyprus and Romania. Nonetheless, Romanians have access to entering the Schengen Space without a visa.

3. Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Cyprus, Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia and Sweden opened their labour market to Romanian citizens upon its accession to the EU in 2007. In 2009 Denmark, Greece, Hungary, Portugal and Spain opened their labour markets. Iceland, Ireland, Italy and Norway gave access to Romanians on the labour market in January 2012. Spain decided to restrict again the access of Romanian citizens to the labour market until the end of 2013. Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Luxemburg, Malta, Netherlands, Spain and UK are planning to keep restrictions until the end of 2013.

4. In Portugal, there were three regularisations: 1992/1993, 1996 and 2001 (Levinson 2005b). In Spain, there have been five regularisations that directly affected Romanian migrants’ status: in 1991, 1996, 2000/1, 2002 and 2005 (Arango 1999). There were also regularisations based on contracts that were slightly different and one could apply at any time. In Italy, there were five regularisations in 1986, 1990, 1995, 1998 and 2002 (Levinson 2005a; Reyneri 1998).

5. The figures are based on Romanians who registered with the local authorities in place where they live. In Spain, one needed to provide a proof a residence when applying for regularisation. The authorities do not provide this data to the police, thus it cannot affect the migrants’ residence in case they are irregular. Accordingly, most migrants register upon their arrival in Spain.

6. Some of the interviews are recorded, whereas for others I took notes. Also, there is information from the participant observation. All the used names are pseudonyms.

7. The network questionnaire asked respondents to refer to five persons relevant to them at two key moments: at the time of their first migration from Romania and currently. Further information was required with regard to the gender, age, nationality, type of assistance provided and relation to the respondent of these persons.

8. The participant observation conducted at the Romanian weekly school in Lisbon was conducted with the aim of studying the second generation of Romanians in Portugal. Nonetheless, the researcher came across information relevant for the case of multiple migrations.

9. This is difficult to study by looking at the quantitative data. In Portugal, it is not mandatory for people to de-register from the town hall. Thus, although these people were captured when they arrived in Portugal, their departure is not registered.

10. Ireland and UK are not part of the Schengen Space and Romanians needed a visa to enter these two countries until January 2007.