Unknown Soldiers and Very Pretty Ladies: Challenges to the Social Order of Sports in Post-War Sweden

Abstract

When Sweden played host to the Equestrian competitions of the 1956 Olympics, social issues of class and gender were publicly discussed and challenged. Indeed, equestrian sports by their very nature and history drew attention to the changing social order of sports (and society at large) during the 1950s. It will be shown that there were a range of quite ambivalent responses to working class men and to women during this time in Sweden. Furthermore, it will be demonstrated that the relationship between these social issues and horse riding was challenged and revised during this time and that the 1950s can be seen as a turning point for the social order of sports. Equestrian sports provide a fascinating case study due firstly to a number of specific contextual features that will be explained, and secondly because they were among the first sports in Sweden to face challenges to traditional social structures.

Notes

1. For the Swedish context, among others Yvonne Hirdman, Med kluven tunga. LO och genusordningen (Stockholm, 1998); Susanna Hedenborg and Ulla Wikander, Makt och försörjning (Lund, 2003).

2. For women's participation in sports in general, see Jennifer Hargreaves, Sporting females. Critical issues and sociology of women's sport (London, 1994) and Heroines of sport. The politics of difference and identity (London, 2004); Linda K Fuller, ed., Sport, rethoric and gender (New York, 2006); Catriona M Parratt, Catriona M., ‘More than mere amusement’. Working-class women's leisure in England, 1750–1914 (Boston, MA, 2001) and ‘Athletic “Womanhood”. Exploring sources for female sport in Victorian and Edwardian England’, Journal of Sport History, 16 (2) (1989), pp. 140–57. For the Swedish context, see Eva Olofsson, Har kvinnorna en sportslig chans? Den svenska idrottsrörelsen och kvinnorna under 1900-talet (Umeå, 1989); Jonny Hjelm, Amasoner på planen. Svensk damfotboll 1965–1980 (Umeå, 2004).

3. Anita Nyberg, ‘The social construction of married women's labor force participation. The case of Sweden in the 20th century’, in Continuity and Change, 9 (1) (1994), pp. 145–56.

4. See, for example, Ulla Wikander, ‘Women and men in a pottery industry. Constancy despite change in work relations during one hundred years: The case of Gustavsberg’, in The sexual division of labour, 19th and 20th centuries: Six essays presented at the Ninth International Economic History Congress Berne, (1986), pp. 127–49

5. Karin Wikberg, Amatör eller professionist. Studier rörande amatörfrågan i svensk tävlingsidrott 1903–1967 (Stockholm, 2005).

6. Mike Huggins, Horse-racing and the British 1919–39 (Manchester, 2003); Mike Huggins, Flat racing and British society 1790–1914 (London, 2000); Wray Vamplew and Joyce Kay, Encyclopedia of British horseracing (London and New York, 2005); Wray Vamplew, ‘Reduced horse power: The Jockey Club and the regulation of British Horseracing’, Entertainment Law, 2 (3) (2003), pp. 94–111; Wray Vamplew, Pay up and play the game. Professional sport in Britain, 1875–1914 (Cambridge, 1988); Wray Vamplew, The turf: A social and economic history of horse racing (London, 1976); Joyce Kay & Wray Vamplew, ‘A modern sport? “From ritual to record” in British horseracing’, Ludica, 9 (2003); Joyce Kay, ‘Dust to dust: The summer of 1976’, Weather, 59 (9) (2004), pp. 247–50. For a presentation of research on horse racing, see Susanna Hedenborg, Arbete på stallbacken. Nittonhundratalets svenska galoppsport ur genus- och generationsperspektiv, (Malmö 2008), ch. 2. See also Susanna Hedenborg, http://www.idrottsforum.org/articles/hedenborg/hedenborg071121.html. (2007).

7. See http://www.sok.se/idrotter/arkivforidrotter/ridsport.5.18ea16851076df63622800013493.html 2008-10-19

8. Clarence von Rosen was a member of IOC since year 1900.

9. SRC regulations, OKAT, KB, pp. 7–8.

10. SRC regulations, OKAT, KB, pp. 7–8.

11. See http://multimedia.olympic.org/pdf/en_report_846.pdf, 2008-06-28, see also Helena Tolvhed, http://www.idrottsforum.org/features/damolympiaden/tolhel060503.html (2006).

12. Among others, see Robert Connell, Masculinities (Berkely, 2005); Jesper Fundberg, Kom igen, gubbar! Om pojkfotboll och maskuliniteter, (Stockholm 2003); Håkan Larsson, Iscensättningen av kön i idrott. En nutidshistoria om idrottsmannen och idrottskvinnan, (Stockholm, 2001); Jesper Andreasson, Idrottens kön.Genus, kropp och sexualitet i lagidrottens vardag (Lund, 2007); Hjelm (2004); Tolvhed (2006) and Helena Tolvhed, http://www.idrottsforum.org/articles/tolvhed/tolvhed.html (2008).

13. Greiff and Hedenborg, eds., I sulky och sadel. Historiska perspektiv på svensk trav- och galoppsport (Stockholm 2007); Hedenborg (2008).

14. Except for the Swedish papers a few foreign newspapers were included in the study: Hufvudstadsbladet, Vasabladet, Figaro, Times and the weekly journal Die Zeitung. However, only a few articles on the event were found in these papers.

15. Svenska hästen i arbete och sport (Stockholm, 1959), p. 158; Dagens Nyheter, 15 June 1956, p. 12.

16. RA, SRC, OS 1956, SOK-protocols 1954–1956.

17. Svenska Dagbladet, 12 June 1956, Dagens Nyheter, 11 June 1956, p. 18.

18. Svenska Dagbladet, 13 June 1956, p. 1.

19. Ragnar Gustafsson, interview on 22 January 2008. First, one rode approximately 10 kilometres on a flat country road at the pace of 225 metres per minute, which meant one could alternate between walking, trotting and cantering. Ragnar Gustafsson, who participated in three-day eventing in the Olympic Games in Rome 1960, recounts how the rider during this could look at the time and stay within the maximum time limit. After the first part followed a 3.5–4.5 kilometre steeplechase, at the speed of 590 metres per minute. This meant that a half-bred horse had to canter at its maximum speed. If one did not reach the finish line within the time limit, one received penalty points. The horses jumped over brushwood and fences – at first they jumped high above, but further along the track they jumped through the brushwood. After the steeplechase the horses were checked by a veterinarian for possible lameness. Next was a second long-distance test – this time 20 kilometres at 225 metres per minute. It was common that the rider lead the horse this distance instead of riding – either at a walking pace or at a trot to make it easier for the horse. Gustafsson stresses that this was done in riding clothes and boots. After that came a 10 minute rest, longer if the rider was within the time limit. During the longer pause, the saddle was taken off and the horse was lead around. In bigger competitions the rider was allowed to rest while a groom tended to the horse. Following the rest was the cross-country ride – 7 kilometres and 30 jumps. The cross-country ride had to be at the speed of 460–490 metres per minute. Once again, the equipages had to ride at maximum speed. After that, the final part of the track was done in trot in order to slow down the pulse of the horses. Afterwards, the horses were inspected.

20. Vasabladet, 12 June 1956.

21. Ragnar Gustafsson, 22 January 2008; Dagens Nyheter, 10 June 1956; Expressen, 4 June 1956. See also Den svenska hästen i arbete och sport, pp. 156–8.

22. Svenska Dagbladet, 14 June 1956. The drama of the competitions overshadowed another incident, which ought to have been just as dramatic. A fire had started in the manege of K1, the Olympic manege. Horses were evacuated and the riding-school was burnt to the ground. Dagens Nyheter also reported that an ammunition magazine exploded. Two smoking grooms were suspected. Svenska Dagbladet, 14 June 1956; Dagens Nyheter, 14 June 1956, p. 7. For the total number of riders, see ‘Comte rendu sur les jeux equestre olympique a Stockholm 1956’, SCR. Handlingar rörande OS, RA.

23. Svenska Dagbladet, 14 June 1956, pp. 10–11.

24. Dagens Nyheter, 14 June 1956.

25. Svenska Dagbladet, 14 June 1956, p. 16; Expressen, 14 June 1956, p. 23; Dagens Nyheter, 14 June 1956, p. 18 and 15 June 1956, p. 1; Vasabladet, 17 June 1956; Morgontidningen, 14 June 1956, p. 1; Morgontidningen, 16 June 1956, p. 1, p. 3; Morgontidningen, 18 June 1956, p. 1.

26. Dagens Nyheter, 14 June 1956, p. 8.

27. Aftonbladet, 15 June1956; Expressen, 15 June 1956; Dagens Nyheter, 15 June 1956; Morgontidningen, 15 June 1956; and Svenska Dagbladet, 15 June 1956.

28. The English team's victory was considered to be fitting, since the British Queen was present to watch the competitions. See Svenska hästen i arbete och sport, p. 158 and Dagens Nyheter, 15 June 1956, p. 12. However, it was Kastenman's triumph which received the most attention in the Swedish press. In The Times, the headline on the 15 June is ‘British riding triumph’, although naturally Kastenman's victory is also mentioned.

29. The best Swedish competitor finished in 32nd place (out of 66 competitors) in this event. The Swedish riders’ lack of fortune was regretted. In Dagens Nyheter this was claimed to be because the government no longer gave enough support to horse riding, which meant the riders could not train as much as they would have needed, see Dagens Nyheter, 18 June 1956, p. 17. In the book Svenska hästen i arbete och sport, pp. 152-153, it is argued that the incident cannot be blamed on the horses. Instead it is said that the riders had not prepared their horses well enough. The author hints that show jumping riders are lazier than racing riders and event riders. The former prepare their horses by getting up early in the mornings and training before work. According to the author, the show-jumping riders should follow this example.

30. Up until 1947 the Federation was called The Swedish National Federation for Gymnastics and Sports Associations (Svenska gymnastik- och idrottsföreningars riksförbund).

31. For an account of the amateur regulations and how they developed during the 20th century, see Wikberg (2005).

32. KB, OKAT, SRC regulations, 1943, section 12. All quotations are translated by me from Swedish.

33. Hästen was a monthly journal, read by people interested in riding all over the country.

34. Hästen, 7–8 (1949), p.1.

35. KB, OKAT, SRC reglemente, 1949, section 12.

36. Aftonbladet, 15 June 1956; Expressen, 13 June 1956; Dagens Nyheter, 15 June 1956, p. 12; Svenska Dagbladet, 14 June 1956, p. 1, p. 16; Morgontidningen, 15 June 1956, p. 1, pp. 11–12.

37. Aftonbladet, 15 June 1956.

38. Svenska Dagbladet, 14 June 1956.

39. Svenska Dagbladet, 14 June 1956, p. 16.

40. Dagens Nyheter, 15 June 1956, p. 12, p. 22. Ragnar Gustafsson, 22 January 2008; Göran Lindstrand, 24 June 2008.

41. Svenska Dagbladet, 15 June 1956, 14; Aftonbladet, 15 June 1956; Expressen, 15 June 1956, p. 25.

42. Svenska Dagbladet, 16 June 1956, p. 12.

43. For information about the French papers’ speculations, see Svenska Dagbladet, 16 June 1956, p. 12. In Dagens Nyheter, 16 June 1956, p. 12 it is written that the head of the army decided to give Kastenman the horse as a service horse and not one of his own, so that he could keep his amateur status; Morgontidningen, 16 June 1956, p. 1.

44. Dagens Nyheter, 19 June 1956, p. 18.

45. For a review of the arguments, see Hedenborg (2007).

46. See RA, SRC, OS 1956, Deductions and daily accounts, and RA, SRC, OS 1956 SOK protocols 27 June 1955.

47. Hedenborg (2008), ch. 3.

48. Hedenborg (2008), ch.3.

49. See RA, SRC, OS 1956, Deductions and daily accounts and RA, SRC, OS 1956, SOK protocols 27 June 1955.

50. Svenska Dagbladet, 4 June 1956, p. 14.

51. Aftonbladet, 15 June 1956, p. 3.

52. Aftonbladet, 15 June 1956, p. 3.

53. Aftonbladet, 15 June 1956, p. 3.

54. Yvonne Hirdman, ‘The gender system’ , in Moving on (Aarhus, 1991).

55. Helena Tolvhed http://www.idrottsforum.org/articles/tolvhed/tolvhed.html, 28 June 2008. Tolvhed uses three categories when analysing the media covering of Olympic Games in the 20th century: primarily a women, the ridiculous sports-practising woman and the serious sports-practising women. The first portrait of the serious sports-practising woman appeared at the time of the Olympic Games in Melbourne, but mostly women were just ridiculed and sexualised. See also Eva Queckfelt (2000) who shows how women's sports-practising is often ridiculed; and Hedenborg (2008); several articles in Fuller (2006) and especially Jeffrey O Segrave, Katherine L McDowell and James G King III, ‘Language, gender and sport: A review of the research literature’, in Fuller (2006).

56. Dagens Nyheter, 6 June 1956.

57. Dagens Nyheter, 6 June 1956.

58. Dagens Nyheter, 6 June 1956.

59. Dagens Nyheter, 6 June 1956.

60. Svenska Dagbladet, 17 June 1956.

61. Morgontidningen, 16 June 1956, p 11.

62. For criticism from experts see Svenska hästen i arbete och sport, pp. 153–156; Dagens Nyheter, 12 June 1956 and 8 July 1956; Aftonbladet, 18 June 1956, p. 14 and 19 June 1956, p. 21; Svenska Dagbladet, 12 June 1956, p. 17.

63. Morgontidningen, 17 June 1956, p. 14.

64. Dagens Nyheter, 6 June 1956.

65. Dagens Nyheter, 10 June 1956, p. 1; Expressen, 15 June 1956, p. 26 and 17 June 1956, p. 22; Aftonbladet, 12 June 1956.

66. Dagens Nyheter, 10 June 1956, p. 26.

67. Svenska Dagbladet, 18 June 1956, p. 14.

68. Hedenborg (2008).

69. Svenska Dagbladet, 14 June 1956, p. 10.

70. Trav- och galoppronden, 14 (1934), p. 10. When Prince Gustav Adolf died, it was emphasised that he was especially interested in steeplechase racing – in which he was an active participant. A photo of him riding in a steeplechase race is used in the article. Hästen, 1 (1947), p. 3, p. 5.

71. Trav- och galoppronden, 30 (1935), pp. 8–9; 30 (1945), p. 9; 17 (1944), p. 8; 16 (1972), p. 27;. Hästen, 12 (1945), p. 18; KB, OKAT, Jockey Club regulations and rules for racing and enrolment, 1930, section VII, 24; KB, OKAT, Jockey Club regulations, 30 (2) (b) (1944). Trav- och galoppronden 16 (1959), p. 16; Trav och galoppronden, 47 (1959).; SGC's regulations, 130 (b) (1975); Trav och galoppronden, 11, 8 (1954). (Jockeyklubbens reglemente 1944)

72. A similar characterisation for the masculine ideals can be found in British horse racing, see R J Moore-Coyler and J P Simpson, ‘High-caste Corinthians: Amateurism and the bloodstock industry 1945–75’, The International Journal of the History of Sport, 2 (2004), p. 282.

73. According to Wiedesheim-Paul, another advantage with steeplechases was that the riders were allowed to be slightly heavier, a fact that made it easier for the Swedish riders to be able to compete. George Wiedesheim-Paul, Minnen från turfen (Stockholm, 1927), pp. 183–184.

74. Svenska Dagbladet, 14 June 1956, pp. 10–11. About the accident, see also Aftonbladet, 9 June 1956, p. 18.

75. Dagens Nyheter, 15 June 1956, p. 22. For a similar article, see Morgontidningen, 11 June 1956, p. 9. In the book Svenska hästen i arbete och sport – a magnificent volume about horses and riders during the first half of the 20th century – we can find a similar attitude. Riding with a broken collar bone is described as a brave and strong thing to do in the slightly facetious comment: ‘Once he caused Blixen to dismount involuntarily, and there was a band when the rider landed on his back. That must have felt great in the shoulder and collar bone’, Svenska hästen i arbete och sport, 1959, p. 158.

76. Svenska Dagbladet, 14 June 1956, pp. 10–11.

77. Svenska Dagbladet, 14 June 1956, pp. 10–11.

78. Dagens Nyheter, 14 June 1956, p. 8.

79. Dagens Nyheter, 18 June 1956; Expressen, 18 June 1956, p. 16.

80. Svenska Dagbladet, 17 June 1956, p. 18.

81. Dagens Nyheter, 17 June 1956, p. 5 and 19 June 1956, p. 18; Svenska Dagbladet, 14 June 1956, p. 16; Expressen, 13 June 1956, p. 13; 14 June 1956, p. 1, pp. 22–23 and 15 June 1956, pp. 1–2, p. 9; Aftonbladet, 14 June 1956, 15 June 1956, 16 June 1956 and 18 June 1956.

82. For similar attitudes see, Dagens Nyheter, 17 June 1956, p. 5 and 19 June 1956, p. 18; Svenska Dagbladet, 14 June 1956, p. 16; Expressen, 13 June 1956, p. 13; 14 June 1956, p. 1, pp. 22–23 and 15 June 1956, pp. 1–2 and p. 9; Aftonbladet, 14 June 1956; 15 June 1956; 16 June 1956 and 18 June 1956.

83. Expressen, 15 June 1956.

84. Expressen, 15 June 1956; Dagens Nyheter, 15 June 1956, p. 23; Svenska Dagbladet, 16 June 1956, p. 12

85. Dagens Nyheter, 15 June 1956; Aftonbladet, 15 June 1956.