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ABSTRACT
The period from 1870 to the Great War was defined by a new and more intensive phase of imperialism. Following previous debates initiated by scholars such as MacKenzie, Burton, or Bayly this article analyses the impact of Empire on the metropole. In suggesting that the imperial space was not a one-way street, the paper is going beyond Said's orientalist approach. This argument uses the example of the Indian game of polo. Unlike most imperial sports, polo was adapted by the British from their colonial subjects, creating the opportunity of a common cultural space. How did polo influence socio-cultural and political power constellations in India and the metropole? The paper will provide nuance on regional contexts and the effects of sport on specific groups. Unpacking the resulting interdependencies, ambivalences, and the mutability of polo in the British imperial self-image, the paper does not neglect Indian agency. Polo showcases an interrelation of ideas and beliefs which are used to understand the respective environment as well as the internationalisation of sport. Researching sport in an imperial context and its interactions on a local and transnational level can thus display rising asymmetries of political, cultural, and social agencies in a global process.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
Notes on contributors
After graduating with an MSc in History from the University of Edinburgh in 2017, Luise Elsaesser currently pursues PhD at the European University Institute. Her general interests lie within the fields of economics, socio-culture, and sport history.
Notes
1 Capt. & Brevet-Major G.J. Younghusband, Tournament Polo (Allahabad: Pioneer Press, 1897), 1.
2 ‘A Lover of the Game’, Letters on Polo in India: Written to a Beginner (Calcutta: Thacker, Spink & Co., 1918). The edited letters originate from 1910 to 1911.
3 In suggesting that the colonial space was not an empty one and did indeed influence the metropole, I am going beyond Said's basic orientalist approach: Edward Said, Orientalism (London: Penguin Books, 2003 [1978]).
4 Alan Bairner, Sport, Nationalism, and Globalization: European and North American Perspectives (Albany, NY: State University New York Press, 2001), 1–20, 163–77, suggests a political aspect to globalised sport due to its competitive character.
5 Since this work was written in the UK, it was not possible to back up Indian agency with primary sources. Therefore, this part relies on profound secondary literature.
6 Sebastian Conrad, Andreas Eckert, and Ulrike Freitag, eds., Globalgeschichte. Theorien, Ansätze, Themen (Frankfurt a. M. / New York: Campus Verlag, 2007).
7 Nandini Gooptu and Douglas M. Peers, ‘Introduction’, in The Oxford History of the British Empire: India and the British Empire, ed. id. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), 1–15; John MacKenzie, ed., Imperialism and Popular Culture (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1986); Antoinette Burton, ed., After the Imperial Turn: Thinking with and Through the Nation (Durham: Duke University Press, 2003); Catherine Hall, Civilising Subjects: Metropole and Colony in the English Imagination, 1830–1867 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002); Disagreement exists on the socio-cultural impact of the empire in the metropole: Bernard Porter, The Absent-Minded Imperialists: Empire, Society, and Culture in Britain (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004); Andrew Thompson, The Empire Strikes Back? The Impact of Imperialism on Britain from the Mid-Nineteenth Century (London: Pearson Education Limited, 2005).
8 MacKenzie, Imperialism and Popular Culture.
9 Christopher A. Bayly, Imperial Meridian: The British Empire and the World 1780–1830 (London / New York: Longman, 1989); Linda Colley, Britons: Forging the Nation, 1707–1837 (New Haven / London: Yale University Press, 1992); Catherine Hall, ed., At Home with the Empire: Metropolitan Culture and the Imperial World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006).
10 Christopher A. Bayly, The Making of the Modern World 1780–1914: Global Connections and Comparisons (Malden, MA / Oxford: Blackwell, 2004); Exception: Hall, Civilising Subjects, 424–33 on men in Birmingham; for an extended historiography: James Thompson, ‘Modern Britain and the New Imperial History’, History Compass 5, no. 2 (2007): 455–62.
11 Christopher A. Bayly, Empire and Information: Intelligence Gathering and Social Communication in India, 1780–1870 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996).
12 Jürgen Osterhammel, Sport in der Weltarena, in: Boris Barth / Stefanie Gänger / Niels P. Petersson, Globalgeschichten. Bestandaufnahme und Perspektiven (Frankfurt a. M.: Campus Verlag, 2014), 229–58; Richard Holt, ‘Historians and the History of Sport’, Sport in History 34, no. 1 (2014): 1–33; Joseph Maguire, ‘Sportization’, in The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology, Vol. 9, ed. George Ritzer (Malden, MA / Oxford: Blackwell, 2007), 4710–11.
13 Brian Stoddart, ‘Sport, Cultural Imperialism, and Colonial Response in the British Empire’, Comparative Studies in Society and History 30, no. 4 (1988): 649–73.
14 Wolfgang Behringer, Kulturgeschichte des Sports. Vom antiken Olympia bis zur Gegenwart (München: C.H. Beck, 2012). An exception: Andreas Eckert, ‘Sport und Kolonialismus in Afrika’, Geschichte in Wissenschaft und Unterricht 56 (2005): 565–79.
15 From an economic to a cultural superstructure switched: Antonio Gramsci, The Modern Prince and Other Writings (New York: International Publishers, 1975); Stoddart 1988, 652 f.
16 Stoddart, ‘Sport, Cultural Imperialism, and Colonial Response in the British Empire’, 650.
17 Mary Louise Pratt, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation (New York / London: Routledge, 1992), 6; Or: James Clifford, Routes: Travel and Translation in the Late Twentieth Century (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997), 192.
18 Along those lines the Empire was also defended by contemporaries such as Seeley and Dilke: John R. Seeley, The Expansion of England: Two Courses of Lectures (London, 1883); Charles Dilke, Problems of Greater Britain (London, 1890).
19 See within and beyond the Indian imperial context the essays in: J.A. Mangan, ed., The Cultural Bond: Sport, Empire, Society (London: Cass, 1992), esp. 1–10.
20 Stoddart, ‘Sport, Cultural Imperialism, and Colonial Response in the British Empire’, 649–73; Ronojoy Sen, Nation at Play: A History of Sport in India (New York: Colombia University Press, 2015), 81–6, 249–86; Out of a vast bibliography: Ramachandra Guha, A Corner of the Foreign Field: The Indian History of a British Sport (London: Picador, 2002); Ashis Nandy, The Tao of Cricket: On Games of Destiny and the Destiny of Games (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001); Michael W. Apple, Education and Power (New York / London: Routledge, 1982); Mrinalini Sinha, Colonial Masculinity: The ‘Manly Englishman’ and the ‘Effeminate Bengali’ in the Late Nineteenth Century (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1995).
21 George N. Curzon, Lord Curzon in India: Being a Selection from His Speeches as Viceroy & Governor-General of India, 1898–1905, in: Thomas Raleigh (ed.) (London / New York: Macmillan & Co., 1906), 245; Sinha, Colonial Masculinity.
22 Sinha, Colonial Masculinity.
23 Even though more products became available and non-European goods more affordable, about a quarter of English households still lived in poverty: Kaspar Maase, Grenzenloses Vergnügen. Der Aufstieg der Massenkultur, 1850–1970 (Frankfurt a. M.: Fischer, 1997), 80.
24 Game laws describe the right to hunt, particularly the shooting of deer, pheasants, rabbits, and partridges. This privilege was legally restricted to those members of the social order with an income of at least £40 a year. The laws caused considerable friction in the countryside. From 1831 onwards, everyone could obtain a permit to shoot rabbits, hares, and gamebirds. However, shooting animals on someone else's land without permission continued to be illegal. Shooting on larger estates was and remains a fashionable country sport.
25 See for the previous: Christiane Eisenberg, „English Sports“ und Deutsche Bürger. Eine Gesellschaftsgeschichte 1800–1939 (Paderborn et al: Schöningh, 1999), 36–62; David Cannadine, Aspects of Aristocracy: Grandeur and Decline in Modern Britain (New Haven / London: Yale University Press, 1994); Christiane Eisenberg, ‘The Rise of Internationalism in Sport’, in The Mechanics of Internationalism. Culture, Society, and Politics from the 1840 to the First World War, ed. Martin H. Geyer and Johannes Paulmann (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), 375–403, here: 380.
26 The term ‘ayha’ describes the Indian nannies, while the term ‘lascar’ is referring to a soldier and sailor from India. Martin Wainwright, ‘The Better Class’ of Indians: Social Rank, Imperial Identity, and South Asians in Britain, 1858–1914 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2012), 7; Shompa Lahiri, Indians in Britain: Anglo-Indian Encounters, Race and Identity, 1880–1930 (London: Cass, 2000), 1–14.
27 At the Imperial Conference in 1911, Lord Crewe expressed his concerns that Indians were being discriminated, cited in: Wainwright 2012, 233.
28 Bernard S. Cohn, Colonialism and Its Forms of Knowledge: The British in India (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996), 3–5; John Marriott, The Other Empire: Metropolis, India and Progress in the Colonial Imagination (Manchester: Manchester university Press, 2003).
29 Christopher A. Bayly, The New Cambridge History of India, Vol. II: Indian Society and the Making of the British Empire (Cambridge, 1990), 202 f.
30 Ibid., 1–4, 200; Especially the protection of the northern frontier, threatened by Russia, played a central role within the army. The conflict between Russia and Britain about the supremacy in Asia is referred to today as the ‘Great Game’.
31 Susan Bayly, Caste, Society and Politics in India from the Eighteenth-Century to the Modern Age (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), Chap. 1–3, and 371 f. How the caste system was used by the British after the Great Rebellion: Nicholas B. Dirks, Castes of Mind: Colonialism and the Making of Modern India (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001).
32 Paintings from mid-eighteenth-century India, earthenware polo figures from the Tang-dynasty, or engraved vessels from the Mamluk dynasty, see: The British Museum Online Collection. An anthropological account on polo variations still found today: Emma Levine, A Game of Polo with a Headless Goat and Other Bizarre Sport Discovered Across Asia (London, 2003); an overview: H.E. Chehabi and Allen Guttmann, ‘From Iran to All of Asia: The Origin and Diffusion of Polo’, The International Journal of the History of Sport 19, no. 2–3 (2002): 384–400.
33 ‘Polo’, in: Henry Yule and Arthur Coke Burnell, Hobson-Jobson: Being a Glossary of Anglo-Indian Colloquial Words and Phrases and of Kindred Terms (Cambridge, 2012 [1886]: Cambridge University Press), 544–5, here: 544.
34 Sen, Nation at Play, 39–44; Calcutta Polo Club, ed., The Mecca of Polo: Odyssey from the Days of the Raj (Calcutta: Calcutta Polo Club, 2006), 7–17.
35 Col. Henry de Beauvoir De Lisle, The Rules of Polo in India (Bombay: Thacker, 1907). Discussions of rules are found in textbooks, especially with remarks on how it should be done, see e.g.: ibid, 20–3; Edward D. Miller, Modern Polo (London / Calcutta: Hurst & Blackett, 1902), 228; as well as in the media – one example is a reader's letter as late as 1911, with a complaint about alterations made to the rules: The Pioneer Mail, 02.06.1911, 34.
36 Younghusband, Tournament Polo.
37 Miller, Modern Polo, Chap. 2. A book that went through six editions between 1896 and 1930 in which the author emphasises that polo is a scientific game. Sen, Nation at Play, 39–44; Calcutta Polo Club, The Mecca of Polo, 7–17; De Lisle, The Rules of Polo in India. Discussions of rules are found in textbooks, especially with remarks on how it should be done, see e.g.: ibid, 20–3; Miller, Modern Polo, 228; as well as in the media – one example is a reader's letter as late as 1911, with a complaint about alterations made to the rules: The Pioneer Mail, 02.06.1911, 34.
38 Sinha, Colonial Masculinity; Patrick McDevitt, ‘The King of Sports: Polo in Late Victorian and Edwardian India’, The International Journal of the History of Sport, 20, no. 1 (2003): 1–27, here: 2.
39 The Kotah Polo Club Team, in: The Polo Magazine: A Journal of Polo, the Pony World and Sports, London 42:4 (1897), 209. For a comparison of social substance see: Ramachandra Guha, ‘“The Moral That Can Be Safely Drawn from the Hindus’ Magnificent Victory”: Cricket, Caste and the Palwankar Brothers’, in Subaltern Sports: Politics and Sport in South Asia, ed. James H. Mills (London: Anthem Press, 2005), 83–106.
40 Guha, A Corner of the Foreign Field; Nandy, The Tao of Cricket; Sen, Nation at Play.
41 McDevitt, The King of Sports, 13.
42 James Moray Brown and T.F. Dale, The Badminton Library of Sports and Pastimes: Polo (London: Longmans & Co., 1901), 276 f.
43 The 18th Lancers for instance did not compete in 1890–91 because they were on active service: The Polo Magazine: A Journal of Polo, the Pony World and Sports, No. 33:4 (Jan. 1897), 1. McDevitt, The King of Sports, 2, 23.
44 Ibid. See also a theory of co-perception: Darren R. Walhof, ‘Friendship, Otherness, and Gadamer's Politics of Solidarity’, Political Theory 34, no. 5 (2006): 569–93.
45 David Cannadine, Ornamentalism: How the British Saw Their Empire (London: Allen Lane, 2002); Cultural instruments of colonial rule: Christopher Pinney, ‘The Material and Visual Culture of British India’, in The Oxford History of the British Empire, ed. Nandini Gooptu and Douglas M. Peers, 231–61.
46 Hierarchy of British and Indian aristocracy in the eye of the British: Cannadine, Ornamentalism, 51. Besides, famines and conflicts still existed and should be kept in mind: Mike Davis, Late Victorian Holocaust: El Niño Famines and the Making of the Third World (London: Verso, 2001). For an example see: McDevitt, The King of Sports, 11.
47 M.B. Balsare, The System of Governance in India (Ahmedabad: Guzerat Gazette Press, 1888), 10–11; see also: McDevitt, The King of Sports, 11–12.
48 That threat got institutionalised with the formation of the Indian National Congress in 1885. But already since the Great Rebellion the British were more and more dependent on Indian princes, see e.g. Thomas R. Metcalf, The Aftermath of Revolt: India 1857–1870 (New Delhi: Manohar, 1990), 222, 236.
49 Miller, Modern Polo, 221.
50 Sen, Nation at Play, 37.
51 Robert Baden-Powell, Indian Memories (London: Herbert Jenkins, 1915); McDevitt, The King of Sports, 6.
52 Indian Office Records and Private Papers of the British Library (BL), MSS Eur B 235/1, Memoirs of Colonel Harry Ross.
53 Lord Horatio H. Kitchener cit. in: Sen, Nation at Play, 37.
54 BL, MSS Eur B 235/1.
55 Ibid.
56 Randolph Churchill, ed., Winston S. Churchill, Vol. 1: Youth, 1874–1900 (London: Heinemann, 1966), 304 f.
57 Miller, Modern Polo; McDevitt, The King of Sports, 4.
58 Economic processes defined a new phase of imperialism alongside other significant changes such as new technologies of intervention, the collapse of peace-keeping mechanisms in Europe and a new interpretation of international politics influenced by a social-Darwinist flow. Contemporary critique: Thorstein Veblen, The Theory of the Leisure Class: An Economic Study of Institutions (New York: Macmillan & Co., 1899); John A. Hobson, Imperialism: A Study (London: James Nisbet & Co., 1902); Jürgen Osterhammel, Die Verwandlung der Welt: Eine Geschichte des 19. Jahrhunderts (München: C.H. Beck, 2009), 610–23, 646–54; Bayly, The Making of the Modern World, 5 ff., 59–64.
59 Rudyard Kipling, The Maltese Cat, in: The Day's Work (1898). Tony Mason and Eliza Riedi, Sport and the Military: The British Armed Forces 1880–1960 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 57 ff.
60 Baden-Powell, Indian Memories, 31.
61 Richard Holt, Sport and the British: A Modern History (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989), 210.
62 De Lisle, The Rules of Polo in India, ii f.
63 For the Naini Tal critic see: India Office Records and Private Papers of the BL, MSS Eur C 823 – Scrapbook held by J.H.E. Reid from the 93rd Highlanders; Pioneer Mail, 06.10.1911, Letters on Polo in India 1918; Polo for the Poor Man, in: Pioneer Mail, 27.01.1911. See for a critique of the extravaganza of horse sport in general as well as polo: Mason / Riedi, Sport and the Military, 57–65.
64 Ann Laura Stoler, ‘Rethinking Colonial Categories: European Communities and the Boundaries of Rule’, Comparative Studies in Society and History 31, no. 1 (1989): 134–61.
65 Cit. in: McDevitt, The King of Sport, 7 f.
66 The expenses to attend tournaments amounted to Rs. 500–1000 per year: The Polo Magazine, No. 42:4 (Sept. 1897), 209. Players often travelled notable distances to attend the tournaments. In 1864 the complete railway network was 4000 miles long, in 1880 9000 miles, and in 1920 38,000 miles. The railway was subject to corruption from its beginning and driven by British self-interest instead of the prevention of famine: John Hurd Il and Ian J. Kerr, India's Railway History: A Research Handbook (Leiden / Boston: Brill, 2012). The Maharajah of Idar, Sir Pertab Singh of Jodhpur, and his team for instance lived within 120 miles of the next train station which made travelling for his club very difficult.
67 De Lisle, The Rules of Polo in India, 2; National Records of Scotland (NRS), GD 16/57/90, Inter-Regimental Polo Tournament Rules, signed Feb. 1882 in Lucknow.
68 Younghusband, Tournament Polo, 2, 9.
69 De Lisle, The Rules of Polo in India, 2.
70 The Polo Magazine, No. 42:4 (Sept. 1897), 209. See also footnote 58.
71 De Lisle, The Rules of Polo in India, 200.
72 Brown and Dale, The Badminton Library of Sports and Pastimes: Polo, 276 f.
73 McDevitt 2003, 13. Especially so in interracial sports, such as cricket or rowing: Paul R. Deslandes, ‘“The Foreign Element”: Newcomers and the Rhetoric of Race, Nation and Empire in “Oxbridge” Undergraduate Culture, 1850–1920’, Journal of British Studies 37 (1998): 54–90, here: 71 f.
74 M. Horace Hayes, A Guide to Training & Horsemanagement in India with a Hindustanee Stable Vocabulary (Calcutta: Thacker & Co., 1874), 123–8.
75 Dhananajaya Singh, The House of Marwar (New Delhi: Lotus Collection, 1994), 130.
76 Sinha, Colonial Masculinity. McDevitt, The King of Sports, 21 ff.
77 Singh, The House of Marwar, 130.
78 Horace A. Laffaye, Polo in Britain: A History (Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company, 2012), 8 f.
79 Miller, Modern Polo, 1 f.
80 Captain Robert Weir dedicated his book to the Prince of Wales (at this date future Edward VII): Robert Weir, Riding Polo (London: Longmans, 1895). A few textbooks also had the crest of the Order of the Garter in their preface which underlines the royal tie of polo.
81 NRS, GD 364/3/28/1, The Rules and Regulations of the Polo Club with List of the Members (Westminster, 1873). I cannot tell with certainty when this Polo Club was founded. However, since polo arrived in Britain not before 1869 it must have been founded between then and 1873 from when this publication dates.
82 Miller, Modern Polo, 211.
83 Cannadine, Aspects of Aristocracy, 55.
84 James Moray Brown, Polo (London: Vinton & Co., 1895), 2.
85 Veblen, The Theory of the Leisure Class.
86 ‘A Lover of the Game’, 4–6, 47; Thomas B. Drybrough, Polo (London: Vinton & Co., 1898), 5.
87 Mike Huggins, Vice and the Victorians (London / New York: Bloomsbury, 2018), 89–115.
88 Weir, Riding Polo, 296.
89 Huggins, Vice and the Victorians, 114.
90 For instance: Baron de Rothschild, in: British Sports and Sportsmen: Past and Present, Vol. 1 (London, 1908), 125.
91 Horse racing was very popular with the masses and rail-lines connected city centres and the turf, located in the countryside: James Christie Whyte, The History of the British Turf (London: Colburn, 1840); Wray Vamplew, The Turf. A Social and Economic History of Horse Racing (London: Allen Lane, 1976).
92 Civilian teams competing against regiments, e.g.: The Polo Monthly, September 1909, 40.
93 Moray Brown, Polo, 2–5.
94 See: The Hurlingham Pavillon, in: Thomas B. Drybrough, Polo, 66.
95 Horse racing was very popular with the masses and rail lines connected city centres and the turf, located in the countryside: Whyte, The History of the British Turf; Vamplew, The Turf.
96 BL, MSS Eur B 235/1.
97 Miller, Modern Polo, 4; Horace A. Laffaye, Polo Encyclopedia (Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company, ²2015), 105.
98 Drybrough, Polo, 5.
99 On the one hand, the value of rupee to pound fluctuated constantly, for instance due to the adaption of gold-coinage by Prussia after 1870, which effected other currencies strongly – especially since the silver-based rupee had no fixed value to the gold-based pound. A rough estimate of 800–1200 rupee after 1870 is therefore £50–75. See: H.P. Young, Hints on Sport: A Few Practical Suggestions on Polo and Gymkhanas (Leamington: The Author, 1907), 71; Miller, Modern Polo, 179. One guinea, on the other, translated into £1 and 1 shilling. In comparison but keeping in mind that wages depended on the respective economic sector, an average worker earned about £41 per year in the late-Victorian era: Martin J. Daunton, Wealth and Welfare: An Economic and Social History of Britain, 1851–1951 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007).
100 Miller, Modern Polo, 239.
101 The Polo Pony Stud Book, Vol. I (Lewes: Polo Pony Society, 1894), 12.
102 Ibid, Vol. VII (Lewes: Polo Pony Society, 1903); Vol XIV (Lewes: Polo Pony Society, 1917).
103 Ibid. Vol. I, 113.
104 The Polo Magazine, No. 40: 4 (July 1897), 179–82.
105 Drybrough, Polo, 291, quote from: 298.
106 Laffaye, Polo in Britain, 10–30.
107 Polo Magazine, No. 33:4 (January 1897), p. vii.
108 John Tosh, ‘Gentlemanly Politeness and Manly Simplicity in Victorian England’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 12 (2002): 455–72.
109 Linda Colley e.g. concentrates merely on the European ‘Other’: Linda Colley, Britons, 311, 315–20.
110 Bringing national identity down to social or territorial boundaries drawn to distinguish the collective self is described by: Peter Sahlin, Boundaries, The Making of France and Spain (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989), 270 f.
111 Reported e.g. in: Baily's Magazine of Sports and Pastimes, 01.03.1892; The Polo Monthly, September 1909-February 1911; Baden-Powell, Indian Memories. How much attention the British society spent in general on the Empire is questioned in: Porter, The Absent-Minded Imperialists. See also: MacKenzie (ed.), Imperialism and Popular Culture. British society was highly fractured and complex and so were the ways in which people thought about ‘empire’: Thompson, The Empire Strikes Back?
112 Younghusband, Tournament Polo, 176.
113 Moray Brown, Polo, 176 f.
114 See for lists of historic results: http://www.cupoloclub.com/the-history, 22.06.2017; Ogier Rysden, ed., The Book of the Blues: Being a Record of All Matches Between the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge in every Department of Sport (London: F.E. Robinson & Co., 1900).
115 Sen, Nation at Play, 81–6. The most remarkable example of Indian sport players in Britain might be Prince Ranjitsinjhi who became the first coloured player for the English national cricket team and thus served as a symbol of imperial loyalty and unity, see: Lahiri, Indians in Britain, 1–14.
116 Osterhammel, Die Verwandlung der Welt, 1066.
117 Rules and List of Members of the International Gun & Polo Club (London: T. Brettell & Co., 1879).
118 The Polo Monthly, September 1910, 76.
119 Eisenberg, „English Sports“ und Deutsche Bürger.
120 The Polo Monthly, January 1911, 328; February 1911, 425–8.
121 See for instance: Ibid., March 1910, 9–12; April 1910, 103.
122 Ibid., September 1909, 53 f.; Colonel Chunda Singh of Patiala, in: The Polo Monthly: An Illustrated Record of the Game at Home and Abroad, September 1909, 53.
123 Horace A. Laffaye, Polo in Argentina: A History (Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company, 2014); Moray Brown, Polo, 9 f., 10; Drybrough, Polo, 291; Weir, Riding Polo, 158.
124 The Polo Monthly for instance commented on polo in the faraway realm of the Empire every month.
125 Osterhammel, Sport in der Weltarena, 232.
126 The Polo Pony Stud Book, Vol. XIV, Lewes 1917; for instance: The Polo Monthly, April 1916.