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Articles

Representation, reflection, and self-esteem in the amour pur debate

Pages 89-111 | Published online: 08 Feb 2022
 

ABSTRACT

This paper focuses on the late seventeenth-century discourse on “pure” or “disinterested love” (amour pur, amour désintéressé). The central claim is that the mystical writers’ critique against amour-propre threatens the system of esteem so that late seventeenth- and early eighteenth-century debates around pure love (the so called “amour pur debate” or the “Quietist affair”) cannot be accounted for simply in terms of mysticism; rather, they have a profound impact on the concept of social esteem. The middle term used to link these two aspects (the theological claims and the social questions) is a special theory of cognition defended by the proponents of pure love and strongly opposed by their opponents. The latter argue that the exclusion of self-reflectivity from disinterested love is a dangerous illusion which leads to negative social consequences. Thus, generally speaking, the Quietist affair is linked not only to the history of early modern self and spirituality but also to the forming of modern social values.

Acknowledgements

My research was supported by NKFIH projects No. 116234, 120375, 123839 and 125012 and the Institute of Philosophy, Research Center for the Humanities, Eötvös Loránd Research Network, Budapest. The first two sections are abridged and improved versions of my article “The Problem of Conscience and Order in the Amour-pur Debate” (in The Concept of Love in Modern Philosophy: Descartes to Kant, edited by Gábor Boros, Martin Moors, and Herman De Dijn, 53–61, Brussels: Koninklijke Vlaamse Academie van Belgie voor Wetenschappen et Kunsten, 2005). I am grateful to Andreas Blank for bringing some aspects of the topic to my attention, as well as three anonymous reviewers for a series of remarks and useful suggestions which helped to improve the paper.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

1 Brennan and Pettit, The Economy of Esteem, 25.

2 Nicole, De la charité, cited by Brennan and Pettit, The Economy of Esteem, 25.

3 See, for example, La Rochefoucauld’s Collected Maxims, 25 (§ 81): “We cannot love anything except in relation to ourselves, and we are merely following our own taste and pleasure when we prefer our friends to ourselves; yet only by such a preference can friendship be true and perfect.” (“Nous ne pouvons rien aimer que par rapport à nous, et nous ne faisons que suivre notre goût et notre plaisir quand nous préférons nos amis à nous-mêmes; c’est néanmoins par cette préférence seule que l’amitié peut être vraie et parfaite”) (La Rochefoucauld, Réflexions, 90). On Nicole, see Weber “Le «commerce d’amour-propre».”

4 La Rochefoucauld, Collected Maxims, 9 (§ 16): “Such clemency, which is treated as a virtue, is prompted sometimes by vanity, sometimes by laziness, often by fear, and nearly always by all three together.”

5 For a more balanced reading showing the complexity of La Rochefoucauld’s attitude towards virtue and self-knowledge, see Blank, “Self-Knowledge,” sect. 2. On Nicole’s and La Rochefoucauld’s views relating to (self)-esteem, self-love and self-knowledge, see Moriarty, Fallen Nature, chaps 3, 4, 9 and 10.

6 Pettit, The Common Mind, 220.

7 Ibid., 226.

8 See Elias, The Civilizing Process; Elias, The Court Society. On the different and sometimes antagonistic forms of honnêteté which played an important role in this process, see Magendie, La politesse mondaine; Stiker-Métral, Narcisse contrarié.

9 Cf. Bremond, Histoire littéraire. The two terms figure in the subtitles of volumes 2 and 3 to 6, respectively, of Bremond’s monumental work.

10 The controversy over the pure love is one of the most famous and dramatic intellectual events of the last decades of the French Grand Siècle, reaching its peak with the debate of two outstanding divines, Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet (1627–1704) and his ex-protégé, François de Salignac de La Mothe Fénelon (1651–1715). Events revolved around the spiritual writings of Madame Guyon (Jeanne-Marie Bouvier de la Motte-Guyon, 1648–1717), whose mysticism exerted a profound influence on Fénelon from 1688. Under the protection of Madame de Maintenon (morganatic wife of Louis XIV), Guyon occupied strong positions at the court of Versailles, where a devout circle was formed under her influence. When her mystical teaching reached the young ladies of a nearby boarding school at Saint-Cyr (an establishment under the care of Madame de Maintenon), she finally aroused the suspicion of the local bishop because of certain similarities between her writings and those by Miguel de Molinos, condemned in Rome as heretical in 1685 and 1687. On the intervention of the bishop, a theological commission was set up in Issy with Bossuet and Fénelon among the members (1694). Although Madame Guyon agreed to accept the 34 articles (Articles d’Issy, 1695) rejecting various mystical opinions, she could not escape imprisonment for years because of the political aspects of the case. Fénelon, who refused to subscribe to the interpretation that Bossuet attached to the articles, wrote his own version, which amounted to a wholesale defense of interior prayer and the spirituality of pure love. Entitled Explication des maximes des saints sur la vie intérieure (1697), this work was to become one of the masterpieces of Christian devotional literature. A few years later, in 1699, after Bossuet transferred the matter to the Holy See, Fénelon’s book was officially condemned as containing heretical views. The date almost coincides with the political fall of Fénelon. Disgraced, he was banished from the court and ordered to stay away from Paris, within the limits of his diocese of Cambrai, of which he had been elected archbishop in 1695.

11 In an informative article, Syliane Malinowski-Charles proposes to make a clear distinction between the “Quietist affair” in seventeenth-century Italy and the “amour pur debate” in France (Malinowski-Charles, “La question de l’amour de soi”). Although the second debate is closely related to the first, she emphasizes that they remain historically different. The Quietist affair goes back to 1675 when Miguel de Molinos published his Guida spirituale, a highly popular book in which the Spanish priest (working in Italy) defined the true love of God as a pure and selfless affection leading to complete stillness of the soul. This controversy culminated in 1687 when, in the bull Coelestis pastor, Pope Innocent XI condemned 68 theses compiled from various writings of Molinos. The “amour pur” controversy, on the other hand, is an indirect and belated ramification of the Italian events, leading to Fénelon’s condemnation in 1699 (see the previous note). While I fully share Malinowski-Charles’ historical point, I do not apply the terminological distinction, because the label “Quietism” has been used indiscriminately to designate both phases of events, not only by the participants in the debate but also by later commentators. It is true that, in the beginning, Quietism had negative connotations, reflecting the point of view of the critics who tended to lump together different mystical currents to stigmatize them using the name of a condemned heresy, but the same can be said of “Jansenism” (and many other -isms for that matter). Consequently, I find it appropriate to stick to common usage and to follow Moshe Sluhovsky, who proposes “Quietism” and “pre-Quietism” as umbrella terms to underline the common ground of certain mystical currents based on inner passivity (see Sluhovsky, Believe Not Every Spirit, 98). While seventeenth-century terminology is reflected in the title of the Relation sur le quiétisme by Bossuet, for contemporary usage, see the entry “Quiétisme” by Jacques Le Brun in the Encyclopaedia Universalis, who gives the following definition covering both phases of the debate: “Le quiétisme est une forme de la mystique chrétienne, tendant à l’hétérodoxie, qui a été condamnée en 1687 par une constitution du pape Innocent XI [erreurs de Molinos] et en 1699 par un bref d’Innocent XII (erreurs relatives à l’amour pur de Dieu, à propos d’un livre de Fénelon).

12 See Cognet, Crépuscule des mystiques. Cognet’s contribution shows how the Quietist debate led to the decline of early modern mysticism. By now, the literature on the Quietist affair is considerable. To my mind, one of the best expositions from a theological and philosophical point of view is Terestchenko, Amour et désespoir. Two other classic presentations are Armogathe, Le Quiétisme, and Le Brun, Le pur amour, which place the seventeenth-century developments in the context of the long history of pure love. Certeau’s La fable mystique is a sensitive, philosophically minded study with particular attention paid to linguistic and literary aspects. For a recent contribution to the English language literature, see Lennon, Sacrifice and Self-interest. The philosophical aspects of the debate are amply adressed by the classic work of Yves Montcheuil, Malebranche et le quiétisme. On the Quietist affair, a rich bibliography can be gathered from the informative notes in Hanley, The Political Philosophy, chap. 7.

13 Cf. Certeau, “La pensée religieuse,” 203.

14 On the subject of perspective and representation, see Hamou, La mutation du visible.

15 Pensées, fr. Lafuma 199, Sellier, 230, Brunschvicg 72, Disproportion of Man. Pascal, uvres complètes, 526: “C’est une sphère infinie dont le centre est partout, la circonférence nulle part.”

16 See, for example, Malebranche’s presentation of this view in The Search After Truth, in which he summarizes some of the main points of the first two books: “I showed (a) that our senses and imaginations are very useful to us in knowing the relations external bodies have to our own; (b) that all the ideas the mind receives through the body are entirely for the benefit of the body” (Malebranche, The Search After Truth, 261). Malebranche’s conclusions seem to recapitualte Descartes’ point in Meditation VI in a slightly radicalized form, for Descartes does not deny that sensory perceptions provide information about the bodies themselves (all he claims is that “they provide only very obscure information,” cf. Descartes, The Philosophical Writings, 58), and Descartes speaks of the benefit of the mind-body composite and not that of the body alone.

17 Fontenelle, Entretiens, 40 (second soir): “C’est la même chose […]. Nous voulons juger de tout, et nous sommes toujours dans un mauvais point de vue. Nous voulons juger de nous, nous en sommes trop près ; nous voulons juger des autres, nous en sommes trop loin. Il faudroit simplement être Spectateur du Monde, et non pas Habitant” (English translation: Fontenelle, Conversations, 37).

18 Cf. La Rochefoucauld, Collected Maxims, 146 (withdrawn after the first edition, I, 1). Cf. Malebranche, De la recherche, 1: 223 (2.2.6): “Ce n’est pas ici le lieu de découvrir les souplesses de l’amour-propre.” (Malebranche, Search, 147: “But this not the place to expose the versatility of self-love.”)

19 On Guyon’s impact on Protestant devotional literature, see especially Ward, Experimental Theology, a comprehensive study focusing on the American reception of Quietist spirituality.

20 Guyon, Moyen court, 58. (Préface): “On se sert du mot facilité disant que la perfection est aisée, parce qu’il est facile de trouver Dieu [le cherchant au-dedans de nous].” The addition in the parentheses comes from the Lyon edition (see the Bibliography). English translation: Guyon, A Short and Easy Method, 227.

21 Guyon, Moyen court, 62 (see also the additions of the Lyon edition, 4–5).

22 Ibid., 63 (1.5): “Rien n’est plus aisé que d’avoir Dieu et de le goûter.” English translation by Metcalf: “Nothing is so easily obtained as the possession and enjoyment of God” (Guyon, A Short and Easy Method, 231).

23 Ibid., 70 (3.4): “goût expérimental de la présence de Dieu.” In Metcalf’s rendering, “experimental enjoyment of the presence of God” (Guyon, A Short and Easy Method, 238).

24 This approach is typical of the various groups of chrétiens sans église, see Kołakowski, Chrétiens sans Église.

25 Ibid., 90 (15.1): “Et l’amour propre nous trompe facilement.” The whole sentence in Metcalf’s translation: “When we examine with effort, we are easily deceived, and betrayed by self-love, into error” (Guyon, A Short and Easy Method, 263).

26 Here I follow the Lyon edition, 64, cf. ibid., 91, n. 2 (15.3): “[elles] ont un acte éminent qui comprend les autres, avec plus de perfection, quoiqu’[elles] n’aient pas ceux-ci, comme distincts et multipliés.”

27 Guyon, Les torrents, 72 (chap. 1): “rivières, qui après qu’elles sont sorties de leur sources, ont une course continuelle pour se précipiter dans la mer.” English translation: Guyon, Spiritual Torrents, 2.

28 Ibid., 72–3 (chap. 2): “Les premières âmes sont celles, qui après leur conversion, s’adonnent à la Méditation, aux œuvres mêmes extérieures de charité ; elles font quelques austérités extérieures: enfin elles tâchent peu à peu de se purifier” (italics in the original). English translation: ibid., 4.

29 Ibid., 73 (chap. 2): “avancer peu à peu.” English translation: ibid.

30 Ibid., 80 (chap. 3): “[Les secondes âmes] sont comme ces grandes rivières qui vont à pas lents et graves. Elles coulent avec pompe et majesté.” English translation: ibid., 13.

31 Ibid., 80–1: “Elles sont l’admiration de leur siècle.” English translation: ibid., 14.

32 Ibid., 82: “[Dieu] élevant leur capacité naturelle.” English translation slightly modified: ibid., 15.

33 Ibid., 83: “Les arrêtant aux dons de Dieu, au lieu de les faire courir à Dieu par ses dons.” English translation: ibid., 16.

34 Ibid.: “Le dessein de Dieu dans la distribution, et même la profusion qu’il fait à ces âmes de ses grâces, c’est pour les faire avancer vers lui, mais elles en font un usage tout différent, elles s’y arrêtent, elles les considèrent, les regardent, et se les approprient, d’où viennent les vanités, les complaisances, la propre estime, la préférence que l’on fait de soit aux autres.” English translation: ibid., 16–17.

35 Guyon, Les torrents, 106 (chap. 6): “Elle sent d’abord perdre son calme, qu’elle croyait posséder pour toujours. Ces eaux si calmes commencent à faire bruit. Le tumulte se met dans ses ondes, elles courent et se précipitent, mais où courent hélas, c’est à leur perte. Si elles pouvaient vouloir quelque chose, elles voudraient se retenir. Mais c’est une chose impossible. La pente est trouvée: il faut se précipiter de pente en pente.” English translation: Guyon, Spiritual Torrents, 50.

36 Ibid.: “O pauvre torrent, vous croyez avoir trouvé le repos d’être arrivé. Vous commencez à vous plaire dans vos eaux. Les créatures s’y mirent, les trouvent très belles. Mais vous voilà bien surpris lorsqu’en coulant si doucement sur le sable, vous rencontrez sans y penser une pente plus forte, plus longue et plus dengereuse que la première.” English translation: Ibid., 52.

37 See Lennon, Sacrifice and Self-interest, chap. 2; Terestchenko, La querelle, 178–81.

38 Malaval, Pratique facile, 1: 342: “Plus il est pur, moins il est perceptible: et moins il est pur, plus on l’aperçoit.” It is worth noticing the title of Malaval’s treatise which also promises “easy practice.”

39 Ibid., 1: 343: “Quelquefois aussi Dieu se communique à l’âme avec une si grande simplicité, qu’elle ne voit plus ny lumière ny obscurité.”

40 Ibid., 1: 7–8: “Lors que vous estiez dans quelque exercice spirituel, qui fournissoit des considerations et des pieux mouvemens, comme une matiere propre à vous faire connoistre et à vous faire aymer Dieu: c’étoient des raisonnemens et des reflections continuelles du costé de l’entendement, de grandes resolutions et de bons propos du costé de la volonté. Maintenant il faut agir d’une autre façon, car lors qu’il se presentera à vostre esprit des pensées, ou des affections qui vous pourront élever à Dieu, vous les devez recevoir comme une simple disposition pour vous recueillir, et non pas comme une matiere pour vous occuper. C’est à dire, qu’aussi-tost que la pensée ou l’affection seront entrées une fois dans l’ame, il les faudra laisser là, et s’arrester en Dieu seul, sans plus recourir à l’entendement, ny à la volonté, ny à la mémoire, comme si vous ne les aviez point.”

41 Guyon, Les Torrents, 131 (chap. 8): “Ce torrent s’abîme et se perd dans la mer pour ne se retrouver jamais en lui-même, mais pour devenir une même chose avec la mer.” English Translation: Guyon, Spiritual Torrents, 102.

42 Notice, however, that the union with God does not lead to a complete extinction of the self, because the distinction between the soul and God does not annihilate but, shrinking to a minimum, becomes imperceptible. Ibid., 87 (chap. 4): “It is to be remarked, that the river or torrent thus precipitated into the sea does not lose its nature, although it is so changed and lost as not to be recognized. It will always remain what it was, yet its identity is lost, not as to reality, but as to quality; for it so takes the properties of salt water, that it has nothing peculiar to itself, and the more it loses itself and remains in the sea, the more it exchanges its own nature for that of the sea.” (“Il est à remarquer que le fleuve ainsi précipité dans la mer ne perd pas sa nature, quoiqu’elle soit si changée et si perdue que l’on ne la connaisse pas. Il est toujours ce qu’il était, mais son être est confondu et perdu ; non quant à la réalité, mais quant à la qualité ; car il a pris tellement la nature de l’eau marine, que l’on ne voit plus rien qui lui soit propre ; et plus il s’abîme, s’enfonce, et demeure dans la mer, plus il perd sa qualité pour prendre celle de la mer”). English Translation: Ibid., 23.

43 De Sales, Traitté de l’amour de Dieu, 4: 302–3 (VI, 1): “Dieu seul est celuy qui, par son infinie science, void, sonde et penetre tous les tours et contours de nos espritz ; il entend nos pensees de loin […], sa science en est admirable, elle prevaut au dessu de nostre capacité, et nous n’y pouvons atteindre. Certes, si nos espritz vouloyent faire retours sur eux mesmes par les reflechissemens et replis de leurs actions, ilz entreroyent en des labyrinthes esquelz ilz perdroyent sans doute l’issue ; et ce seroit une attention insupportable de penser quelles sont nos pensees, considerer nos considerations, voir toutes nos vües spirituelles, discerner que nous discernons, nous resouvenir que nous nous resouvenons : ce soyent des entortillemens que nous ne pourrions desfaire.” Cf. Psalm 138: 3–5.

44 Ibid., 3: 336 (VI, 10): “ilz le quittent volontairement pour voir comme ilz se comportent en iceluy et pour examiner s’ilz y ont bien du contentement, s’inquietans pour sçavoir si leur tranquillité est bien tranquille et leur quietude bien quiete.” Cf. Bossuet, Oeuvres, 5:82a. (Instruction sur les états d’oraison, V. 9).

45 Plotinus, Enneads 3.7.11, 5.1.1.

46 As the autobiography of Jeanne Guyon makes clear, this may happen in the strictest sense of the word. Guyon recalls certain periods of “transfiguration” when, during her confinement in the Convent of the Visitation, she “had no longer anything of the creature,” becoming oblivious of what was happening around her. See Guyon, La vie, 486–91; Guyon, Autobiography 2: 182–8 (III, 6, 1–9).

47 Guyon, Commentaires, 255 (IV, 9): “Elle ne sait pas que son regard est devenu si épuré que, étant toujours direct et sans réflexion, elle ne connaît pas son regard, et ne s’aperçoit pas qu’elle ne cesse point de voir. De plus, dès qu’on ne peut plus le voir et que l’on s’oublie soi-même, aussi bien que toutes les créatures, il est nécessaire que l’on regarde Dieu : et c’est sur lui que s’arrête le regard intérieur.” English translation: Guyon, Song of Songs, 75.

48 Bossuet, Oeuvres, 5:80b–81a (Instruction, V, 3): “Il est pourtant véritable, tant cet état est peu naturel, qu’on ne cesse de réfléchir, en disant qu’on ne réfléchit pas, et quand cette âme non réfléchissante dit tout court : Je ne suis plus en état de me regarder, c’est dans la plus apparente extinction des réflexions une des réflexions les plus affectées sur soi-même et sur son état.”

49 This is one of the debated topics between Bossuet and Fénelon. The latter sided with Guyon in emphasizing that reflection has no role to play in the mystical experience, but agreed with Bossuet that some forms of reflection, inherent in all conscious acts, still occur. His point is that this rudimentary reflection does not leave any trace in the memory. Cf. Fénelon, Maximes, 1: 1013 (§ 13). The question is explored in detail in Vetö, Fénelon, 96.

50 Bossuet, Oeuvres, 5:81a (Instruction, V, 4): “les précautions, les circonspections, les examens de la conscience, et les autres qu’on nous prescrit font la sûreté de la vie” (Emphasis added). Interestingly, the phrase highlighted refers to certain probabilistic strategies that were very popular at the time, thus putting the whole Christian life in the perspective of risk calculation in a manner not far from Pascal’s wager.

51 Ibid. (V, 5): “Dieu a voulu mettre dans l’esprit humain la force, pour ainsi parler, de redoubler ses actes par la réflexion, pour donner de la fermeté à ses mouvements directs; ainsi les actes directs ont quelque chose de plus simple, de plus naturel, de plus sincère peut-être, qui vient plus du fond si vous voulez ; mais les réflexions qui ont la force de les confirmer venant par dessus, elles font dire à David: J’ai juré et j’ai résolu de garder les lois de votre justice (Psal. cxviii. 105.)” (italics in the original).

52 This approach shows some scholastic influence. It seems to draw on the “monitoring reflection,” needed especially to carry out the envisaged action, which played an important role in Suárez’s theory of action. Cf. Suárez, Discourse, 25: 910 (25. s. 1. n. 39). For the “directive” or “monitoring” reflection in late scholasticism, see Pink, “Suarez, Hobbes”; Pink, “Action, Will.”

53 In the intellectual milieu of the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, which was deeply influenced by Cartesianism, Bossuet’s account is not the only attempt to explore the epistemology of mystical knowledge. Another insightful approach – although quite the opposite in its orientation – is that of Pierre Poiret, who, in the subsequent editions of his Cogitationes rationales de Deo, anima et malo, made important comments on the issue (see, for instance, Poiretus, Cogitationes, 759). As an editor of Guyon’s works, Poiret was well acquainted with her spiritual views. For Poiret’s Cartesian and mystical commitments, see Chevalier, Pierre Poiret.

54 Bossuet, Oeuvres, 5:81b (Instruction, V, 5): “Tout cela grave, fortifie, imprime les actes dans le cœur, inspire des précautions ; et si l’on dit que les parfaits n’en ont pas besoin tant qu’ils sont en cette vie, on dément encore David, lorsqu’il dit […]: J’ai considéré mes voies, et j’ai tourné mes pas du coté de vos préceptes” (italics in the original). Cf. Articles d’Issy, 16: “Les réflexions sur soi-même sur ses actes et sur les dons qu’on a reçus, qu’on voit partout pratiquées par les prophètes et par les apôtres pour rendre grâces à Dieu de ses bienfaits, et pour autres fins semblables, sont proposées pour exemples à tous les fidèles, même aux plus parfaits ; et la doctrine qui les en éloigne est erronée et approche de l’hérésie.” Cf. Bossuet, Oeuvres, 5:46.

55 On Bossuet’s Cartesianism, see the brilliant analysis of the epistemological aspects of the Fénelon–Bossuet debate by Geneviève Rodis-Lewis, which completes the reasoning in her Le problème de l’inconscient, 249ff. Because speaking of the early modern period in terms of the unconscious may sound a bit anachronistic, I use nonconscious to refer to what Rodis-Lewis means by inconscient in her discussion of the different types of unconscious thoughts in Cartesian theory of mind.

56 Bossuet, Oeuvres, 5:84a (Instruction, V, 17): “Si l’on cherche comment et pour quelles causes nos actes intérieurs bons et mauvais échappent à notre propre connoissance, on en trouvera d’infinies.”

57 Ibid., (Instruction, V, 16): “un acte vertueux produit avec réflexion et avec une connoissance plus expresse ait plus de bonté.”

58 Ibid., 5:82a (Instruction, V, 8): “Dieu suspend la réflexion quand il lui plaît : la question est de savoir s’il y a des états en cette vie où il l’ôte tout-à-fait.”

59 Ibid., 5:83a (Instruction, V, 11): “un homme parfait, qui se sent lui-même, qui réfléchit sur lui-même.”

60 Ibid., 5:87a (Instruction, V, 27): “La joie où les âmes saintes sont abîmées dans le ciel, ne rend que plus nette la connoissance qu’elles ont d’elles-mêmes, et des actes par lesquels elles sont heureuses” (emphasis added).

61 Ibid., 5:88b (Instruction, V, 33).

62 The distance taken from Guyon (which means drawing somewhat nearer to Bossuet) seems to be a distant echo of what Ryan Patrick Hanley calls Fénelon’s “moderation” in politics and education; that is, an attempt to navigate a middle course between false glory, based on tyrannic self-love, and the disinterested “embrace of pure love.” See Hanley, The Political Philosophy, especially 48–9 and chap. 7.

63 Following Foucault’s suggestions, by normalizing discourse I mean various, often imperceptible, techniques used in a society to align individual behavior with social expectations. This aspect of the defense of Jeanne Guyon by Fénelon is evident in his attempt to reformulate what he finds excessive, undisciplined and potentially offensive in her phrases. In doing so, Fenelon strives to channel the uncontrolled mystical zeal in order to bring it within the limits of officially accepted theological discourse.

64 I am grateful to three anonymous referees for their insightful suggestions and excellent comments, which helped me improve my article. All remaining faults and omissions are mine.

Additional information

Funding

This work was supported by Hungarian Scientific Research Fund: [Grant Number 116234, 120375, 123839 and 125012].

Notes on contributors

Dániel Schmal

Dániel Schmal PhD is Associate Professor at Peter Pázmány Catholic University (Budapest) and Director of the Institute of Philosophy at the Center for Humanities Research. His publications include articles on Saint Augustine, Descartes, Malebranche and Leibniz. Area of specialization: modern philosophy of mind, history of philosophy and Christianity in the 17th and 18th centuries.

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