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Abstract
One conflict zone that has experienced multiple but differentiated impacts of peacekeeping economies is the Mano River Union (MRU) area. Comprising Liberia, Sierra Leone and Côte d'Ivoire, it provides the empirical evidence for the analysis in this article. Two major questions form the basis of the discussions. First, how do the mandate, size, and composition of a peacekeeping operation affect the evolution of the peacekeeping economy? Secondly, how do these peacekeeping economies serve as channels of inclusion and exclusion in host societies? This article argues that the peacekeeping economies that emerged in these three states created new hierarchies of inclusion for those who managed to engage with the new economic realities and opportunities, and exclusion of those who lost out on the opportunities. Specifically, the article argues that—while peacekeeping economies mean increased income, mobility and opportunity for some locals (women in particular) among the lower-waged—the peacekeeping economy ‘system’ is set up to reward those who already have the most.
Disclosure Statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
Notes on Contributors
Fiifi Edu-Afful is a Research Fellow with the Peace Support Operation Programme (PSO) of the Faculty of Academic Affairs and Research (FAAR) at the Kofi Annan International Peacekeeping Training Centre (KAIPTC) in Accra, Ghana. ([email protected])
Kwesi Aning is the Director of the Faculty of Academic Affairs and Research (FAAR) at the Kofi Annan International Peacekeeping Training Centre (KAIPTC) in Accra, Ghana. ([email protected])
Notes
1 Over 80 interviews were conducted in the three selected countries over a three-year period (2012–14). Local residents and international actors involved in all aspects and levels of the peacekeeping economies were selected for this study. Sampled local respondents included security guards, drivers, cooks, waitresses, receptionists, janitors, maids, cleaners, petty traders, government workers, local businesspeople (comprising resident foreigners such as nationals of ECOWAS member states, Lebanese and Chinese), politicians, landlords and property managers. Additionally, civilian, police and military employees of the UN and ECOWAS, international UN agency, and NGO employees were interviewed.
2 Conciliation Resources, Mano River Union n.d. (at http://www.c-r.org/our-work/west-africa).
3 Interview with former Chief of Staff, Ghana Armed Forces, Accra, 2014.
4 Interview with a former Nigerian force Commander, Accra, 2014.
5 Interview with a Senior Officer, Ghana Armed Forces, Accra, 2014.
6 Some of these officers went into business such as the fishing, retailing and wholesaling of building materials, and some became building contractors, recruiting young artisans from other West African countries to offer various categories of services in the growing infrastructure industry.
7 The United Nations Office in West Africa on the 29 June 2013 reported that there has been a remarkable growth of 19.7% for Sierra Leone and 9.8% for Côte d'Ivoire in 2012 (at: http://www.unowa.unmissions.org/Portals/UNOWA/Pressrelease/130629PressreleaseMRU_FR_ENGL.pdf).
8 Interview with official of Chamber of Commerce, Monrovia, 2011.
9 Interview with housekeeper, Monrovia, August 2011.
10 Interview with businesswoman, Freetown, 2013.
11 Interview with Executive Secretary, Mano River Women Network for Peace (MAWOPNET), Freetown, 2013.
12 In 2010, 16 Beninese peacekeepers were repatriated to Benin and are barred from serving in the UN following a year-long investigation into exchanging sex for food with underage girls in the western town of Toulepleu. In 2007, a 730-strong battalion of peacekeepers from Morocco was asked to suspend its activities in the northern Ivorian city of Bouake after the UN received allegations of sexual misconduct involving local girls. Additionally, the OIOS-IED data compiled shows that UNMIL and UNOCI rank high third and fifth respectively on the total number of SEA allegations by a peacekeeping mission or UN entity between 2008 and 2013. See also on this subject, Smith and Smith (Citation2010); and Jennings (Citation2008).
13 In Aberdeen-Freetown, there are Chinese and Lebanese brothels which masquerade as casinos, pubs, restaurants and sports bars parading women from Sierra Leone (mainly), China, Nigeria, Guinea and Liberia.
14 Interview with UN officials, Monrovia, August 2011.
15 Interview with a secretary, United Nations Country Support Team, Monrovia, August 2011.
16 Interview with a lecturer at Fouray Bay College, Freetown, July 2013.
17 Interview with a security guard, Abidjan, November 2014.
18 Foreign is used in this context to encompass both foreign corporations/foreign direct investment and residential expatriate/foreign businesspeople such as the Lebanese, Chinese and Nigerians.
19 Interview with staff of Ghanaian-owned Waste Company, Monrovia, August 2011.
20 Interview with a broadcast journalist, Monrovia 2011.
21 Interview with a mechanic driver with UNDP, Abidjan, November 2014.