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Articles

From Therapy and Enhancement to Assistive Technologies: An Attempt to Clarify the Role of the Sports Physician

Pages 480-491 | Received 09 Dec 2011, Accepted 09 Oct 2012, Published online: 09 Nov 2012
 

Abstract

Sports physicians are continuously confronted with new biotechnological innovations. This applies not only to doping in sports, but to all kinds of so-called enhancement methods. One fundamental problem regarding the sports physician's self-image consists in a blurred distinction between therapeutic treatment and non-therapeutic performance enhancement. After a brief inventory of the sports physician's work environment I reject as insufficient the attempts to resolve the conflict of the sports physician by making it a classificatory problem. Followed by a critical assessment of some ideas from the US President's Council on Bioethics, the formulation of ethical codes and attempts regarding a moral topography, it is argued that the sports physician's conflict cannot be resolved by the distinction between therapy and enhancement. Instead, we also have to consider the possibility that the therapy-based paradigm of medicine cannot do justice to the challenges of the continuously increasing technical manipulability of the human body and even our cognitive functions as well. At the same time we should not adhere to transhumanist ideas, because non-therapeutic interventions require clear criteria. Based on assistive technologies an alternative framework can be sketched that allows for the integration of therapeutic and non-therapeutic purposes. After a thorough definition of standards and criteria, the role of the sports physician might be defined as that of an assistant for enhancement. Yet the process of defining such an alternative framework is a societal and political task that cannot be accomplished by the sports physicians themselves. Until these questions are answered sports physicians continue to find themselves in a structural dilemma that they partially can come to terms with through personal integrity.

Los médicos deportivos se enfrentan contínuamente a innovaciones biotecnológicas. Esto concierne no solo al dopaje en el deporte, sino que también a muchos tipos de los llamados métodos de “mejora” [enhancement]. Un problema fundamental en cuanto a la imagen que de sí mismo tiene el médico deportivo consiste en la distinción borrosa entre tratamiento terapéutico y mejora del rendimiento no terapéutica. Después de hacer un breve inventario del ambiente laboral del médico deportivo, rechazo como insuficientes los intentos de resolver el conflicto del médico deportivo que intentan convertirlo en un problema de clasificación. Seguido por un asesoramiento crítico de algunas ideas del gabinete de bioética del presidente estadounidense [Council of Bioethics], y de la formulación de códigos éticos y esfuerzos por desarrrollar una topografía moral, se argumenta que el conflicto del médico deportivo no puede ser resuelto por medio de la distinción entre terapia y mejora. En vez de esto, también hemos de considerar la posibilidad de que el paradigma de la medicina no pueda hacer justicia a los desafíos que presenta el contínuo incremento de técnicas que manipulan el cuerpo humano e incluso nuestras funciones cognitivas. Al mismo tiempo no hemos de adherirnos a un ideario transhumanista porque las intervenciones no terapéuticas requieren criterios claros. Basado en tecnologías asistivas, se puede esbozar un modelo alternativo que permite la integración de objetivos terapéuticos y no terapéuticos. Después de una definición a fondo de estándares y criterios, el papel del médico deportivo podría definirse como el de alguien al servicio de las mejoras. Sin embargo, el proceso de definir tal modelo alternativo es una tarea social y política que no puede ser realizada por los mismos médicos deportivos. Hasta que tales preguntas sean respondidas, los médicos deportivos han de continuar encontrándose con un dilemma estructural al que se enfrentan con su integridad personal.

Sportärzte werden ständig mit neuen biotechnologischen Entdeckungen konfrontiert. Dies bezieht sich nicht nur auf Doping im Sport, sondern auch auf alle Arten von sogenannten Enhancement-Methoden. Ein fundamentales Problem in Bezug auf das Selbstverständnis der Sportärzte besteht in einer unklaren Trennlinie zwischen der therapeutischen Heilbehandlung und nicht therapeutischen Leistungssteigerung (Enhancement). Nach einer kurzen Bestandsaufnahme des Arbeitsumfeldes der Sportärzte lehne ich die Versuche, den Konflikt der Ärzte durch die Darstellung als reines Klassifikationsproblem zu lösen, als unzureichend ab. Gefolgt von einer kritischen Überprüfung einiger Gedanken des US-President’s Council zur Bioethik, der Formulierung ethischer Kodices und Versuchen in Bezug auf eine moralische Topografie, lässt sich sagen, dass der Konflikt der Sportärzte nicht durch die Unterscheidung zwischen Therapie und Enhancement gelöst werden kann. Stattdessen müssen wir die Möglichkeit in Betracht ziehen, dass das therapiebasierte Medizinverständnis den Herausforderungen der andauernden technischen Manipulierbarkeit des menschlichen Körpers und schon gar nicht unseren kognitiven Fähigkeiten gerecht werden kann. Gleichzeitig sollten wir nicht an transhumanistischen Ideen festhalten, nur weil nicht therapeutische Eingriffe klare Kriterien brauchen. Bezogen auf unterstützende Technologien kann ein alternatives Rahmenkonzept skizziert werden, dass die Integration von therapeutischen und nicht therapeutischen Zwecken zulässt. Nach einer gründlichen Bestimmung von Standards und Kriterien könnte man die Rolle des Sportarztes definieren als die eines Assistenten zum Enhancement. Obwohl der Definitionsprozess eines solchen alternativen Rahmenkonzeptes eine gesellschaftliche und politische Aufgabe ist, kann dieser nicht durch die Sportärzte selbst durchgeführt werden. So lange, bis diese Fragen nicht beantwortet werden, werden die Sportärzte sich weiter in einem strukturellen Dilemma befinden, mit dem sie sich nur teilweise durch persönliche Integrität arrangieren können.

Les médecins du sport sont en permanence confrontés à de nouvelles innovations biotechnologiques. Cela s'applique non seulement au dopage dans le sport, mais aussi à toutes sortes de soi-disant méthodes de perfectionnement. Un problème fondamental concernant l’image que les médecins du sport ont d’eux-mêmes consiste en une distinction floue entre traitement thérapeutique et amélioration des performances des fins non thérapeutiques. Après un bref bilan sur l'environnement du travail du médecin du sport, je rejette les tentatives faites pour résoudre le conflit du médecin du sport comme étant insuffisants, en ce qu’ils traitent du problème par la classification. A la suite d'une évaluation critique de quelques idées du Conseil présidentiel des Etats-Unis sur la bioéthique, l'élaboration de codes d'éthique et les tentatives concernant une topographie morale, je défends que le conflit du médecin du sport ne peut être résolu par une distinction entre thérapie et amélioration. A l’opposé, nous devons aussi envisager la possibilité que le paradigme médical fondé sur la thérapie ne puisse pas rendre justice aux défis d’une constante augmentation des possibilités techniques de la manipulation du corps humain, voire même de nos fonctions cognitives. Dans le même temps, nous ne devons pas adhérer aux idées transhumanistes, parce que les interventions non thérapeutiques nécessitent des critères clairs. A partir d’une lecture des technologies d'assistance, un autre cadre peut être esquissé, qui permette l'intégration des ambitions thérapeutiques et non thérapeutiques. Après avoir posé une définition approfondie des normes et des critères, le rôle du médecin du sport peut alors être défini comme celui d'un assistant à l'amélioration. Pourtant, le processus de définition d'un cadre renouvelé est une tâche sociale et politique qui ne peut être accompli par les médecins du sport eux-mêmes. Tant que ces questions n’auront pas trouvé une réponse, les médecins du sport continueront de se trouver dans un dilemme structurel qu'ils ne peuvent que partiellement dépasser au regard de leur intégrité personnelle.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The research for this paper was funded by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research. The author would like to thank the participants of the Research Seminar in Sports Philosophy at Meiji University (Tokyo) for helpful comments on an earlier version of this paper. The author would also like to thank two anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments and suggestions.

Notes

On the distinction between sports doctor and team doctor see Anderson 2009, 1079.

Cf. De Melo-Martín (Citation2010) for placing the debate on enhancement technologies in a broader ethical context than a mere evaluation of risks and benefits.

There are further methodological issues that I cannot discuss in the present paper. Roughly speaking, my investigation is not primarily based on common Western ethical categories such as autonomy, non-maleficence, beneficence, and justice and an ethical assessment, but focuses on the process and the foundations of scientific development itself. In terms of a constructionist approach, reflections on the ethical consequences and risks and benefits of biotechnological intervention are to be complemented by a concept of an alternative framework that is also instructive for scientific research and the technical development of new methods; cf. Floridi (Citation2011) for a constructionist approach and Miah (Citation2007) and De Melo-Martín (Citation2010) for the claim to integrate philosophical and scientific research.

In the following I focus on competitive sports at the highest level, since this is where the problem presents itself most clearly. But the same decision conflicts can also occur in amateur sports. It also applies for army doctors. Cf. Gibson (Citation2006) for bioethical issues regarding space flight.

HPSM is an ‘integrated model of medical care of the high-performance athlete, focusing on the maintenance and optimization of health, well-being and competitive sporting performance under circumstances of high physiological and psychological stress’ (Speed and Jaques Citation2011, 81).

For a game-theoretic analysis of the sports physician's role see Holm (Citation2007).

Cf notes 2 and 3.

My translation. Beyond the context of sports Steinacker (Citation2001) sees prevention as another central field of work in sports medicine.

In their examination of the connection between the interventions of sports medicine and athletic success, Emrich et al. (Citation2004) refer to the two areas of responsibility for the sports physician, which ‘cannot always be resolved without conflict’: the restoration of performance short-term so as to allow further training and the increase in performance when possible conflicts with the long-term preservation of the athlete's health beyond his or her athletic career.

For example, the WADA bases its guidelines on such a normal state, as seen by its reference to a ‘state of normal health’ (World-Anti-Doping-Agency 2008, 13).

Such codes are published by all medical and sports medicine associations; cf. Anderson (Citation2009). In the following I do not refer to any specific code.

For a more comprehensive treatment of the approach of ethical principles see Wiesing (Citation1995).

Cf. McNamee and Edwards (Citation2006) for positions on transhumanism. It is not the case that I would deny the principal perfectibility of human being, but the often blind adherence to scientific progress renders transhumanist positions in a dubious manner.

There are further ethical issues regarding the implementation of enhancement technology in research and development that would imply pre-clinical testing on non-humans which might cause severe problems, in particular the question how to deal with research animals that have enhanced cognitive capacities close to that of humans (cf. Rosoff Citation2011). Cf. Chan (Citation2009) for biotechnological interventions in animals.

Cf. Krebs et. al. (Citation2008), and Krebs (Citation2011); for ethical considerations see Perry, Beyer, and Holm (Citation2009).

Cf. Sankai (Citation2010). Another example is the ‘emotion reader’, cf. Gruebler and Suzuki (Citation2010), a wearable interface for reading facial expressions that can be used in therapeutic contexts (providing biofeedback to patients during rehabilitation or analysing smile behaviour of autistic children) as well as in non-therapeutic human-human communication (e-learning, distance communication and computer games). Further applications include human-robot interaction based on human affective feedback (Gruebler et al. Citation2011).

Cf. Wiesing (Citation1995, ch. 6) on the limits of the doctor's responsibility. Also Murray (Citation2009, 513) suggests discussing non-therapeutic biotechnological intervention in a broader societal and institutional context.

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