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Original Articles

Virtual domains for sports and games

Pages 5-13 | Published online: 10 May 2016
 

Abstract

Videogames present deep challenges for traditional concepts of sport and games. Cybersport in particular suggests that sport might be transposed into digital arenas, and videogames in general provide apparently striking counterexamples to the orthodox Suitsian theory of games, seeming to lack strictly prelusory goals and perhaps even also constitutive rules. I argue as follows: (1) if any cybersports count as genuine sports, it will be those most closely resembling uncontroversial core instances of sport, those that essentially involve gross motor skill. Even so, we might reject cybersports as sport by distinguishing physical skills’ domain of execution from their domain of application, sport implying the non-virtual status of both. (2) Although, like chess, videogames appear to lack prelusory goals, chess conventions and nominal descriptions of the object of any videogame suggest the possibility of Suitsian compliance, as does the inclusion of ‘cheat codes’ in videogame programming. Perhaps such sports and games are so ultimately only in a derivative sense, where the non-actual domains merely represent game-independent states of affairs. Still, the more virtual environments come to be seen as normal, the more such distinctions will appear arbitrary. If the world is already a text, it may soon become a digitized one.

Videospiele stellen eine große Herausforderung für traditionelle Konzepte des Sports und Spiels dar. Der Cybersport insbesondere weist darauf hin, dass Sport in digitale Arenen übertragen werden könnte, und Videospiele im Allgemeinen bieten offenbar ein starkes Gegenbeispiel für die orthodoxe Suit’sche Theorie des Spiels an, da ihnen anscheinend voranzeigende Ziele im engen Sinne und vielleicht sogar auch konstitutive Regeln fehlen. Meine Argumentation ist wie folgt aufgebaut: (1) wenn irgendwelche Cybersportarten als genuiner Sport gelten sollten, dann wird es diejenigen sein, die am stärksten unumstrittenen Hauptbeispielen des Sports ähneln, sprich diejenigen, die wesentlich auf grobmotorische Fähigkeiten setzen. Selbst dann könnten wir aber Cybersportarten eine Absage erteilen, indem zwischen der Domäne der Ausführung vs. die Domäne der Anwendung von körperlichen Fähigkeiten unterschieden wird, wobei Sport den nichtvirtuellen Status beider impliziert. (2) Obwohl Videospielen wie Schach voranzeigende Ziele zu fehlen scheinen, legen Schachkonventionen sowie nominelle Beschreibungen des Ziels eines jeden Videospiels die Möglichkeit einer Suit’schen Übereinstimmung nahe, was ebenso für die Hinzunahme von ‚Cheatcodes‘ in die Programmierung von Videospielen gilt. Womöglich sind solche Sportarten und Spiele nur Ableitungen, in denen die nichtaktuellen Domänen spielunabhängige Zustände bloß repräsentieren. Nichtsdestoweniger werden solche Unterscheidungen umso arbiträrer erscheinen, je mehr virtuelle Umgebungen als normal angesehen werden. Wenn die Welt bereits ein Text ist, wird sie vielleicht bald ein digitaler sein

Los videojuegos plantean grandes desafíos a los conceptos tradicionales del deporte y los juegos. El ciberdeporte, en concreto, muestra que el deporte puede ser llevado a terrenos digitales, y que los videojuegos, en general, proporcionan llamativos y aparentes contraejemplos a la ortodoxa teoría suitsiana de los juegos, pareciendo que carecen estrictamente de la meta pre-lúdica e, incluso, también de reglas constitutivas. Mostraré lo siguiente: (1) si algunos ciberdeportes son considerado como verdaderos deportes, serán aquellos que mejor reflejen claramente los elementos esenciales del deporte, aquellos que esencialmente impliquen una actividad física considerable. Aun así, podríamos rechazar el ciberdeporte como deporte distinguiendo el ámbito de la ejecución del de la aplicación de las habilidades físicas, ya que el deporte implica el carácter no virtual de ambos. (2) Aunque, como el ajedrez, los videojuegos parecen carecer de metas pre-lúdicas, las convenciones del ajedrez y las descripciones nominales del propósito de cualquier videojuego muestran la posibilidad de cumplir con los criterios de Suits, al igual que lo hace la inclusión de “trucos” en la programación de videojuegos. Quizás, tales deportes y juegos son tal sólo en un sentido derivativo, en el que el ámbito no-real simplemente representa una situación independiente del juego. De todos modos, cuanto más comienzan a verse como normales los entornos virtuales, más parece que tales distinciones son arbitrarias. Si el mundo es ya un texto, puede ser que pronto se convierta en uno de tipo digital.

目前,电子游戏对传统体育观念产生了深度的挑战。网络体育尤其表明,运动可能被转变为数字化的舞台。通常,电子竞技给Suits的传统体育理论提供了具有显著外在特征的反例。它缺乏严格的游戏目标,可能还缺少建构性规则。我们认为(1)如果任何电子竞技形式可以看成真正的运动,它也只会是高度近似毫无争议的核心运动实例的运动,也就是那些包含粗略运动技能的运动。即便如此,我们也可以通过区别身体技能的执行维度和适用维度来拒绝承认电子竞技是体育运动,体育运动隐含着两者都有非虚拟化的特征。(2)尽管电子竞技看起来缺乏前游戏目标,如象棋,象棋规则和对任何电子竞技目标的名称性描述表明了其有遵守Suits标准的可能性,就像电子竞技编程中的“作弊代码”所体现的那样。也许这样的体育和游戏最终只是在衍生意义上说的,它的非虚拟性仅仅再现了比赛的独立游戏状态。然而,我们越把虚拟环境视为正常,这种区别就会表现得越武断。如果这个世界已经是一个文本,它可能很快就会成为一个数字化的世界。

Acknowledgements

Thanks to two anonymous reviewers for helpful comments. Earlier versions of this paper were presented at the 2014 European Association for the Philosophy of Sport conference at the University of Lorraine and at a Department of Philosophy colloquium at Dalhousie University.

Notes

1. Here I take the terms ‘cybersport’, ‘e-sport’ and ‘digital sport’ to be synonymous, signifying physical games played out in virtual domains. That I opt for ‘cybersport’ in most cases is a nod to Hemphill’s seminal article. Where I opt for ‘e-sport’ instead my intention is to flag particular videogames (e.g. League of Legends) considered by many followers to count already as sports.

2. Many ‘cyberathletes’ might have little concern that their preferred games do not require gross physical skill. Indeed, the more popular e-sports, and those with the loudest advocates for sport status, seem to be distinguished precisely by their lack of gross physical skill.

3. I am not suggesting that participants’ attitudes towards both real and simulated domains will be necessarily neutral. In general, and with cybersport simulations in particular, one might be keen on the simulation for its own sake, for real-world skill development, or both. Likewise, one may be keen on the actual activity for its own sake, for virtual skill development, or both.

4. Actually, Vossen’s proposal is not so controversial as it sounds. She is following Suits (Citation2005, 58) in distinguishing the institution of chess from any particular game of chess (see also Suits Citation2006, 3, 4), identifying chess with the institution. The point of this manoeuver is to suggest that although the lusory goal of checkmate does depend on the institution of chess, it is rule-independently achievable though not strictly rule-independently describable. Whether this is a satisfactory response remains uncertain, although it does suggest, as discussed below, that chess is a virtual game. I should also note that many videogames are unlike chess in that the object cannot be achieved in a prelusory way.

5. To the extent that the laydown convention is part of the institution of chess, my suggestion may be interpreted as a variation of the Suitsian (and Vossenian) position discussed above.

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