Disinformation Studies: Global Perspectives

Although concepts such as disinformation, malinformation and “fake news” have become popular in recent years, a question emerges: what is society's understanding of each one? If in the case of academics the issue may not make sense, after all, it is part of their work, can we say the same in relation to others, such as educators or media professionals? And the citizens? It seems clear to us that it is important to pursue these questions in different contexts. In Portugal, for example, following a national survey carried out among journalists (Miranda, Torre, and Jerónimo 2023), the preliminary results of focus groups carried out with journalists and the public show that, on both sides, there are different interpretations about the concepts. When asked what they understood by disinformation and “fake news”, whether they were different things or the same thing, there was a disparity in perceptions. Even with journalists, who would be expected to have a clearer idea. This indicator suggests the need to continue studies in this sense, that is, to assess perceptions and, if necessary, develop literacy actions among the studied publics.

“Disinformation Studies: Global Perspectives” is the moto of this special issue that aims to continue a debate that started about three years ago, within a project on local journalism. The complexity and effects this “information disorder”, lead us to reinforce the idea already put forward by Wardle and Derakshan (2017), which is the need to launch an interdisciplinary look to the problem. In this sense, the first debate was launched at the ECREA 2021 Post Conference “Disinformation Studies: Perspectives to An Emerging Research Field”, which took place online, on September 10, 2021, and which was followed by the publication of an open access book and with the same name (Correia, Jerónimo, and Amaral 2022). The ten papers that we have gathered in this special issue bring us a multiplicity of perspectives, bearing in mind the exercise of journalism and what gravitates around it.

We start this special issue with the paper “Nobody-fools-me perception: Influence of Age and Education on Overconfidence About Spotting Disinformation” (Martínez-Costa et al. 2023) that analyzes the excessive confidence in one's ability to identify disinformation, coupled with the belief that one is more resistant to false content than most others. The authors investigate the influence of variables such as age and education on this conviction of being adept at recognizing false information. Additionally, the authors explore how these factors impact individuals’ behavior regarding checking and sharing potentially unverified health-related information, a critical concern during the Covid-19 pandemic. By introducing the concept of the “nobody-fools-me perception” concept, this research provides valuable insights into how subjective perceptions can influence people's belief in false news. It sheds light on the underlying dynamics of disinformation susceptibility.

The paper “Who Posts Fake News? Authentic and Inauthentic Spreaders of Fabricated News on Facebook and Twitter” (Dourado 2023) focuses on the argument that the proliferation of fake news has emerged as a significant threat to the stability of electoral processes, propagated through decentralized and fragmented digital platforms. This study delves into the characteristics of digital accounts that disseminated fake news stories during the 2018 Brazilian presidential elections to shed light on this issue. The research considers factors such as the type of account, the relevance of content, and the likelihood of robotization among 1,073 users. The study's findings reveal that personal profiles rather than pages disseminate fake news stories more frequently. Among the principal spreaders, a majority exhibited highly relevant performance, with a significant number being on Facebook accounts and a notable proportion on Twitter. Interestingly, the most relevant accounts spreading fake news on Facebook and Twitter were classified as “not bot-like” and “not bot.” In contrast, those labeled as “bot-like” or “not possible to assert” exhibited 4.7 times fewer sharing activities.

The special issue follows with “Questioning Fact-Checking in the Fight Against Disinformation: An Audience Perspective” (Kyriakidou et al. 2023). While previous studies have focused on its emergence as a movement within journalism to revitalize the profession and its effectiveness in countering disinformation, particularly during elections, this paper focused on how audiences perceive and utilize fact-checking in their daily news consumption. The findings indicate that fact-checking plays a relatively peripheral role, with minimal impact on people's news consumption. Nonetheless, there is a desire for more fact-checking, especially in television news, as it is seen as a means of holding politicians accountable and assisting the public in gaining a deeper understanding of political matters. Therefore, the article suggests that for fact-checking to play a crucial role in political discourse, it should be integrated as a regular component of broadcast journalism.

The paper “Pseudo-Media Disinformation Patterns: Polarised Discourse, Clickbait and Twisted Journalistic Mimicry” (Palau-Sampio 2023) focuses on the publication of far-right Spanish pseudo-media content. The author employs mixed methods to analyze how the emotional aspect is conveyed through polarized titles that use clickbait to attract attention and establish a specific language, intensified by disinformation and populist tactics. Addressing hybrid media systems and alternative facts, the author focuses on the emergence of the pseudo-media ecosystem considering fragmentation, emotion, and information disorder. The study's main conclusion reveals that mimicry and mockery of journalistic conventions are strategies that synergistically work together to challenge the natural presentation of information related to politics, pandemics, and sensitive social issues intertwined with human rights concerns.

The we have “Purposes, principles, and challenges of fact-checking in Ibero-America: journalists perceptions” (Rodríguez-Pérez et al. 2023). Findings suggest that the experience of journalists plays a crucial role in delineating the distinctions between fact-checking and political or social activism. Fact-checkers with less experience tended to view activism as a legitimate objective of fact-checking. Additionally, age emerged as a significant predictor in shaping reformist perspectives on the essence of fact-checking in the region. Younger fact-checkers were more inclined to believe that fact-checking upholds journalistic principles and promotes information transparency.

Another comparative study is “Truth on Demand: Influences on How Journalists in Italy, Spain, and Bulgaria Responded to Covid-19 Misinformation and Disinformation” (Sarelska and Jenkins 2023). To understand how journalists responded to this misinformation and disinformation in the early months of the pandemic, authors conducted in-depth interviews with 24 journalists from prominent news outlets in the three countries, encompassing both public service and commercial media. The study utilized two frameworks, namely journalistic epistemology, and the hierarchy-of-influences model, to explore the norms, routines, and practices that guided journalists in making truth claims. Additionally, it examined the individual, routine, organizational, and social systems influence that shaped their decision-making processes. The study uncovered three prevalent conspiracy theory narratives that surfaced across various media systems: “Big state” concerns, questioning the authenticity of the coronavirus; “Big pharma”, attributing the lack of a cure for COVID-19 to the actions of pharmaceutical companies; “Big fear” attitude: propagated falsehoods about COVID-19 vaccines.

With “Taiwan’s public discourse about Disinformation as a post-normal issue: the role of journalism, academia, and politics” (Rauchfleisch et al. 2023) the authors argue that despite the recurrent nature of disinformation in that country, there is an intriguing disconnect between the domestic debate and the “Western” discourse within academia and journalism, especially concerning the perceived effects of disinformation. To explore this disparity, the paper delves into the role of academics and journalism in shaping the public discourse and assesses which aspects of this debate have the broadest reach. Employing both automatic and manual content analysis, we investigate how Taiwan's public discourse on misinformation has evolved compared to the international discourse, the significance of misinformation studies in this context, which discourse elements have the widest audience, and identify potential problematic aspects within the discourse.

The paper “Misinformation on Trial: Media Coverage of a Murder, Public Conversation and Fact-Checking” (Vázquez-Herrero, Negreira-Rey, and López-García 2023) follows from the assumption that the rise of online misinformation within social media and social networks aligns with their increasing role in keeping people informed, leading to a polarized context that impacts journalism and institutions. Therefore, the authors argue that beyond the propagation of fake news, misinformation emerges as a response to perceived realities. This study focuses on the case of the murder of Samuel Luiz, which occurred during a group attack in A Coruña, Spain, amid ongoing investigations. The Twitter conversation surrounding the event was predominantly led by non-journalistic actors, significantly influenced by their political positions. Although fact-checkers intervened, their impact was limited compared to the vast volume of social media debates. This study sheds light on the complex interplay between online misinformation, media coverage, public discourse, and the role of fact-checking in today's polarized information landscape.

Another different perspective is brought to us with “Strategies for the Minimisation of Misinformation Spread Through the Local Media Environment” (Fiser and Caks 2023). The research aimed to understand the effects of the pandemic on journalistic procedures, and the paper examines how the pandemic influenced local media, specifically journalists’ practices and the media's overall role. The authors argue that coping with misinformation in the media landscape poses a significant challenge that undermines the media's role. Therefore, the outbreak of the Covid-19 pandemic had a profound impact on media organizations, affecting their operational processes and resulting in a decrease in accuracy. The findings provided valuable insights into how Slovenian local journalists and editors perceive, comprehend, and practice fact-checking. The results indicated that the perception of the media's role in providing accurate information heightened during the pandemic, and human verification played a crucial role in maintaining content credibility in local newsrooms.

The paper “Comparison of the Transparency of Fact-checking: A Global Perspective” (Ye 2023) closes this special issue. In this study the author compares the transparency of fact-checking from a global perspective. In recent years, the global rise of fake news has led to the widespread adoption of fact-checking practices, with transparency becoming a universal standard among fact-checkers worldwide. This article compares the transparency of source, funds, and methodology employed in fact-checking news across six countries, namely the United States, the United Kingdom, India, South Africa, Brazil, and Australia, representing six continents. The study draws upon the three transparency commitments fact-checkers and the International Fact-Checking Network (IFCN) established. The findings reveal that South Africa, and the United States exhibit higher transparency levels than the other countries studied. Additionally, the study highlights that the social environment does not solely influence transparency but is also intertwined with verification and the news writing practices unique to each country. Furthermore, the article compares fact-checkers following the NGO model with those operating within newsrooms. The study identifies that fact-checkers adhering to the NGO model tend to demonstrate significantly higher transparency levels than those in the newsroom model. This article provides a comprehensive perspective on the global landscape of fact-checking by analyzing the differences in transparency across various countries and comparing fact-checkers of different models. It delves into the complexities behind the variations in transparency and offers valuable insights into the reasons influencing the transparency practices of fact-checkers in different regions.

Correction Statement

This article has been corrected with minor changes. These changes do not impact the academic content of the article.

Additional information

Funding

This work was supported by Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia: [Grant Number PTDC/COM-JOR/3866/2020].