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ABSTRACT
Abstract rock art formed part of a pilgrimage trail that led from the lower Apishapa Canyon to the volcanic-like Spanish Peaks near Trinidad, Colorado. Hunter/gatherer ethnography from the southern Great Basin makes sense of abstract engravings in the canyon, at sites such as Cramer, Canterbury, and Snake Blakeslee. According to Great Basin ethnography, mature shamans should lead neophytes along sacred trails to volcanoes because they were sources of supernatural power, or puha. Within the Apishapa Canyon, sharp meanders and multiple confluences created at least two places of power, following Great Basin epistemology, both with tumbled sandstone boulders extensively pecked along their natural cracks. Neophytes, we suggest, pecked the cracks to acquire the inherent puha. Further along, the trail leads past a prominent igneous dike with small artificial platforms suitable for meditation by a single person. Moreover, flake scars and random peckings mark many tumbled boulders, but the stone is not suitable for tool production. Experimental bashing did not produce loud sounds or echoes, but it did produce a sulfurous odor. Since hot springs in the region also emit sulfur, and since hot springs are another source of puha, neophytes may well have struck the boulders in order to acquire supernatural power in another form.
Acknowledgments
We thank Zane Ede and Sonny and Ann Houghtaling for access to their rock art sites in the Apishapa canyon and the owners for access to the Apishapa Crag. Richard Clemmer-Smith, Jannie Loubser, and David Whitley commented on the manuscript. Wendy Voorvelt prepared the illustrations. Support for this research has come from the South African National Research Foundation and the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg. Our interpretations do not reflect the opinions of these sponsors or commentators in any way.
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No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
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Notes on contributors
Thomas N. Huffman
Thomas N. Huffman received a BA (1966) from the University of Denver, and MA (1970) and PhD (1974) from the University of Illinois (Champagne). He was Professor and Head of Archaeology at the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg (1977 to 2000). He was later Chair of Archaeology in the School of Geography, Archaeology and Environmental Studies (2001–2009) and retired as Professor Emeritus. He was originally trained as a Plains archaeologist, but then specialized on the anthropological archaeology of farming societies in southern Africa. He is the author of Snakes and Crocodiles: Power and Symbolism in Ancient Zimbabwe (Witwatersrand University Press, 1996) and Handbook to the Iron Age: the Archaeology of Pre-Colonial Farming Societies in Southern Africa (University of KwaZulu-Natal Press, 2007).
Frank Lee Earley
Frank Lee Earley is a native Coloradan. He received a BA (1964) and MA (1965) from the University of Denver and MA from the University of Arizona (1977). His principal interests are the archaeology of eastern Colorado and the archaeology and ethnography of the American Southwest. He taught Anthropology and History at Arapahoe Community College in Littleton, Colorado (1967 to 2002) where he was Head of Social Sciences (1987–2002) and Director of Southwest Studies Program (1972–1978). Since retirement, he has remained active in archaeological research and writing. He is the author of Chaco Canyon. A Study Guide (Museum of Anthropology, Arapahoe Community College, 1976); The Missions of New Mexico. A Study Guide (Museum of Anthropology, Arapahoe Community College, 1978); and View from the Fourth Floor, a Personal History of Arapahoe Community College, 1967–2005 (Downtown Chaco Press, Elizabeth, Co. 2012).