Ethnicity, Leadership and Conflict Mediation in Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo: The Case of the Barza Inter-Communautaire

Abstract

This article explores a community-level conflict mediation institution in the province of North Kivu, Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), known as the Barza Inter-Communautaire (Barza). The Barza assembles leaders from North Kivu's nine major ethnic groups to help resolve low-level conflicts before they escalate to violence. Between 1998 and early 2004, the Barza generally succeeded in resolving ethnic disputes in North Kivu, particularly those over land ownership, ensuring there were few cases of ethnic violence in its sphere of influence. However, by the end of 2004 the Barza's ability to mitigate ethnic tensions had weakened considerably, and by the end of 2005 the Barza had collapsed altogether. This article traces the history of the Barza and explores its impact on ethnic conflict in North Kivu and the reasons why it eventually broke down. In particular, the article highlights the effects on the Barza of national and regional politics in the context of ongoing violence and the DRC's first national elections since independence. Efforts to restore the Barza may yet prove successful, and it may once again contribute to decreasing ethnic tensions in North Kivu, but only if its leaders overcome significant internal and external obstacles.

Acknowledgements

The author would like to thank the Open Society Justice Initiative, which generously funded the fieldwork on which this article is based, and in particular Kelly Dawn Askin and Tracey Gurd for their invaluable support.

Notes

1. See, for example, Clark, ‘Hybridity, Holism and ‘Traditional’ Justice’; Clark, ‘When the Killers Go Home: Local Justice in Rwanda’; Drumbl, Atrocity, Punishment, and International Law, 85–99; Morris, ‘The Trials of Concurrent Jurisdiction: The Case of Rwanda’, 349–74; Waldorf, ‘Mass Justice for Mass Atrocity’, 1–87;

2. See, for example, Harlacher et al , Traditional Ways of Coping in Acholi; Clark, ‘Recreating Tradition’.

3. E. Kisa Kalobera, quoted in Pole Institute, ‘Inter-Congolese Dialogue’, 4.

4. International Rescue Committee, ‘Mortality in the Democratic Republic of the Congo’. The IRC statistics were confirmed in Coghlan, Brennan et al , ‘Mortality in the Democratic Republic of Congo: A Nationwide Survey’, 44–51.

5. Vlassenroot and Huggins, ‘Land, Migration and Conflict in Eastern DRC’, 146.

6. Vlassenroot and Huggins, ‘Land, Migration and Conflict in Eastern DRC’, 148.

7. Reuters, ‘UN Council Deplores Congo Violence, Urges Talks’.

8. See, for example, Grignon, ‘International Response to the Illegal Exploitation of Resources in the DRC’, 43–52.

9. For a discussion of the various militias incorporated into the Mai Mai in the Kivus, and their motivations, see, Mugangu, ‘Integration of Armed Groups in the Reconstruction Process’, 171–86.

10. Human Rights Watch, ‘Democratic Republic of Congo: Civilians Attacked in North Kivu’, 17–27.

11. Action Sociale pour la Paix et le Développement [ASPD], ‘Rapport d'Analyse sur les Crimes de Génocide’, 9–11.

12. Action Sociale pour la Paix et le Développement [ASPD], ‘Rapport d'Analyse sur les Crimes de Génocide’, 3–12.

13. Quoted in Human Rights Watch, ‘Democratic Republic of Congo: Civilians Attacked in North Kivu’, 13–14.

14. International Crisis Group, ‘Congo's Elections: Making or Breaking the Peace’, i.

15. Author's telephone interview, General Population, Rutshuru, 9 February 2006 [author's translation].

16. See, for example, Human Rights Watch, ‘Democratic Republic of Congo: Arrest Laurent Nkunda for War Crimes’.

17. IRIN News, ‘Dissident General Wants His Troops in National Army’.

18. Life and Peace Institute, ‘An Analysis of the Civil Society and Peace Building Prospects in the North and South Kivu Provinces’, 43.

19. Life and Peace Institute, ‘An Analysis of the Civil Society and Peace Building Prospects in the North and South Kivu Provinces’, 43.

20. Pole Institute, ‘Inter-Congolese Dialogue’, 3.

21. See, for example, Conseil Interuniversitaire de Bukavu, ‘La Construction de la Paix au Nord-Kivu et au Sud-Kivu: Etat de la Recherche’, 58.

22. Life and Peace Institute, ‘An Analysis of the Civil Society and Peace Building Prospects in the North and South Kivu Provinces’, 43.

23. Author's interview, Local Human Rights Worker, Goma, 7 February 2006.

24. Author's interview, Safi Adili, Tutsi Community Leader and President of Barza Inter-Communautaire, (during joint interview with Safi Adili, Alexis Kalinda, Aloys Majune), Goma, 17 February 2006 [author's translation].

25. Kalobera, quoted in Pole Institute, ‘Inter-Congolese Dialogue’, 4.

26. F. Ndyanabo Buundo, quoted in ibid., 6–7.

27. European Union, ‘The European Union's Political and Development Response to the Democratic Republic of Congo’, 29.

28. Author's interview, Safi Adili, Tutsi Community Leader and President of Barza Inter-Communautaire, (during joint interview with Safi Adili, Alexis Kalinda, Aloys Majune), Goma, 17 February 2006 [author's translation].

29. T. Kabira Katarungu, quoted in Pole Institute, ‘Inter-Congolese Dialogue’, 5.

30. MONUC, ‘Quelques Eléments’.

31. Author's interviews, Local Human Rights Workers and General Population, Goma, Rutshuru, 1–10 February 2006.

32. Author's interview, General Population, Rutshuru, 8 February 2006 [author's translation].

33. Author's interview, Local Human Rights Worker, Bukavu, 21 February 2006 [author's translation].

34. Government of the Democratic Republic of Congo, ‘Le Barza Intercommunautaire comme Mécanisme de Construction de la Paix en République Démocratique du Congo’, Ministry of Social Affairs, included in Life and Peace Institute, ‘Atélier de Planification des Parténaires de l'Institut Vie et Paix’, 53.

35. Héretiers de la Justice, ‘Barza Intercommunautaire: Les Populations du Sud Kivu Désapprouvent et Désavouent’ [author's translation].

36. The FDLR comprises ex-interahamwe and other Hutu rebels. The group denies that the Rwandan genocide occurred and aims to bring about a return to Hutu rule in Rwanda. In March 2005, the FDLR announced that it was abandoning its armed campaign and would return to Rwanda as a political party. However, there has so far been little change in patterns of FDLR violence against civilians, particularly Tutsi, in the Kivus.

37. Author's interview, Local Human Rights Worker, Bukavu, 21 February 2006 [author's translation].

38. Author's interview, Yenyi Olungu, Chef de Cabinet, Ministry of Justice, Government of the Democratic Republic of Congo, Kinshasa, 25 January 2006 [author's translation].

39. Author's interview, Government Legal Advisor, Kinshasa, 27 January 2006 [author's translation].

40. Author's interview, Local Human Rights Worker, Bukavu, 20 February 2006 [author's translation].

41. Author's interviews, Local Human Rights Workers, Goma, 1–10 February 2006.

42. Author's interview, Local Human Rights Worker, Goma, 7 February 2006.

43. Author's interview, Safi Adili, Tutsi Community Leader and President of Barza Inter-Communautaire (during joint interview with Safi Adili, Alexis Kalinda, Aloys Majune), Goma, 17 February 2006 [author's translation].

44. MONUC, ‘Quelques Eléments’.

45. Author's interview, Aloys Majune, Hutu Community Leader and Secretary of Barza Inter-Communautaire (during joint interview with Safi Adili, Alexis Kalinda, Aloys Majune), Goma, 17 February 2006 [author's translation].

46. Author's interview, Aloys Majune, Hutu Community Leader and Secretary of Barza Inter-Communautaire, Goma, 9 February 2006 [author's translation].

47. Author's interview, Alexis Kalinda, Nyanga Community Leader and Treasurer of Barza Inter-Communautaire (during joint interview with Safi Adili, Alexis Kalinda and Aloys Majune), Goma, 17 February 2006 [author's translation].

48. Author's telephone interview, Member of Barza Inter-Communautaire, Goma, 17 February 2006.

49. Author's interview, Lawyer, Goma, 10 February 2006 [author's translation].

50. Author's interview, Lawyer, Goma, 10 February 2006 [author's translation].

51. Author's interviews, MONUC officials, Goma, 3 February 2006.

52. Author's interview, Adili and Majune (during joint interview with Safi Adili, Alexis Kalinda and Aloys Majune), Goma, 17 February 2006.

53. Author's interview, Adili and Majune (during joint interview with Safi Adili, Alexis Kalinda and Aloys Majune), Goma, 17 February 2006.

54. Author's interview, MONUC official, Goma, 3 February 2006.

55. Author's interview, MONUC official, Goma, 3 February 2006.

56. Author's interview, MONUC official, Goma, 3 February 2006.

57. Author's interview, MONUC official, Goma, 3 February 2006.

58. Author's interview, Majune (during joint interview with Safi Adili, Alexis Kalinda and Aloys Majune), Goma, 17 February 2006 [author's translation].

59. Author's interview, Majune (during joint interview with Safi Adili, Alexis Kalinda and Aloys Majune), Goma, 17 February 2006 [author's translation].

60. Author's joint interview, Adili, Kalinda, Majune, Goma, 17 February 2006 [author's translation].

61. Author's interview, Majune, ibid. [author's translation].

62. Author's interview, Kalinda, ibid. [author's translation].

63. Author's joint interview, Adili, Kalinda, Majune, Goma, 17 February 2006 [author's translation].