Woodland commodities, global trade, and local struggles: the beeswax trade in British Tanzania

Abstract

This article examines African production and sale of beeswax during the period of British colonial rule in Tanzania. It argues that the Nyamwezi and Ngindo people in particular were active in the exploitation of this forest product as a means to pay taxes and gain access to imports in a way that synchronized with subsistence agriculture and which gave them a measure of control over their economic lives. However, while supported by some colonial officials who tried to increase beeswax exports, African producers had to struggle against forestry and game officers who attempted to prevent their access to prime beeswax areas. The purchase and export of this lucrative product was controlled by a small number of Asian traders who also represented a barrier to the producers’ efforts to gain a fair price.

Keywords:

• forest production
• beeswax
• agriculture
• subsistence
• colonialism
• Tanzania

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their comments and suggestions. My research in Tanzania was greatly facilitated by Thaddeus Sunseri whose own work has also influenced much of my thinking, and who provided a number of sources. I also appreciate support from the Tanzanian Commission on Science and Technology (COSTECH) who granted permission for my research, and the history department at the University of Dar es Salaam. Fieldwork in Tanzania was aided by Edward Kileo and Robert Sailie.

Notes

1. E. Reid. “Tribe Customs: Wangindo Tribe,” in Morogoro (Eastern Province) Provincial Book, vol. II, 1931. Reel 7 of Tanganyika District Books, Center for Research Libraries, Chicago.

2. Tanganyika Territory, Trade Report, 7.

3. “Candles, Altar,” Catholic Encyclopedia, http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/c.htm (accessed June 8, 2007).

4. W.V. Harris to Director of Agriculture, September 19, 1938, Tanzania National Archives, hereafter TNA/ACC 32 Lindi, E 2/B/4.

5. Francis G. Smith to Provincial Commissioner, Central Province, August 28, 1950, TNA/ACC 270 File no. 40, vol. V

6. Neumann, “Africa's ‘Last Wilderness’,” 641–65.

7. Peet and Watts, “Preface,” xiv.

8. Yoder, “Custom, Codification, Collaboration.”

9. Prestholdt, “On the Global Repercussions,” 755–81.

10. Roberts, “Nyamwezi Trade,” 43.

11. Iliffe, Modern History of Tanganyika, 131.

12. Sunseri, Vilimani.

13. Nguvava, “Development of Beekeeping Industry,” passim.

14. Sunseri, “‘Something Else to Burn’”; Sunseri, “Political Ecology of the Copal Trade.”

15. Crane, World History of Beekeeping, 49–61.

16. Rodgers, “Miombo Woodlands,” 299–325.

17. Culwick, “Ngindo Honey-hunters,” 73; Shorter, Chiefship in Western Tanzania, 49.

18. Harris, “Native Bee-keeping in Tanganyika,” 232.

19. Elton, Travels and Researches, 99; Burton, Lake Regions of Central Africa, 200.

20. Stanley, Through the Dark Continent, 3–4; Stanley, How I Found Livingstone, 603.

21. Burton, Lake Regions of Central Africa, 200.

22. Elton, Travels and Researches, 99.

23. Feierman, “A Century of Ironies,” 352–76.

24. Great Britain, Ledgers of Imports Under Articles, The National Archives (formerly The Public Record Office), hereafter NA/CUST 5/77–154

25. Great Britain, Ledgers of Imports Under Articles, NA/CUST 5/144–62.

26. Raum, “German East Africa,” 197; Rodney, “Political Economy of Colonial Tanganyika,” 129–31.

27. Burton, “‘The Eye of Authority’,” 76; Sunseri, Vilimani, 64–5.

28. Iliffe, Modern History of Tanganyika, 131.

29. Iliffe, Modern History of Tanganyika,, 141.

30. Harris, “Beeswax,” 10.

31. “Report on the Sub-district of Malangali for 1925,” 4, bound with “District Officer's [sic] Reports Njombe District, 1924–1937,” TNA.

32. Conference of senior beekeeping instructors, Tabora, March, 31, 1955, TNA/ACC 577 Njombe F. 50/13.

33. Harris to Messrs. Arthur Branwell & Co, July 24, 1933, TNA/ACC 270 File no. 40/B.

34. District Officer, Morogoro to Deputy Director of Agriculture, May 22, 1935, TNA/ACC 61 Eastern Province, File no. 281.

35. District Agricultural Officer, Tabora, to the Director of Agriculture, March 11, 1935, TNA/ACC 270 File no. 40/B.

36. Comptroller of Customs to Messrs. I & M Smith, March 17, 1937, TNA/ACC 270 File no. 40/B.

37. Nguvava “Development of Beekeeping Industry in Tabora,” 61.

38. Harris, “Beeswax,” 10.

39. Market Master, Ugunda, to DC Tabora, July 27, 1953, TNA/ACC 47 F. 3/9.

40. Provincial Commisioner, Central Province to Political Dodoma, April 29, 1942, TNA/ACC 68 3/12, Singida, 1941–54.

41. Conference of senior beekeeping instructors, Tabora, March, 31, 1955, TNA/ACC 577 Njombe F. 50/13.

42. Raum, “German East Africa,” 189.

43. Iliffe, Modern History of Tanganyika, 131.

44. Kipepe, Hamadi, Hashimu Kungira, Abdalla Mtimbo. Author interview, Muhimo, Tanzania, July 17, 2004; Harris, “Beeswax,” 3.

45. Smith to Provincial Commissioner, Western province, and his District Commissioners, May 12, 1951, TNA/ACC 192, File no. 143.

46. Political Dodoma to Political Singida, May 21, 1942, TNA/ACC 68 3/12.

47. Senior Beekeeping Instructor, Southern Highlands Province, Report for the month of August 1957, TNA/ACC 169 A3/25.

48. United Africa Company to District Commissioner, Iringa, November 22, 1950, TNA/ACC 24 A 3/25.

49. Economic Control Board to Provincial Commissioners, April 23, 1942, TNA/ACC 24 A 3/25.

50. District Book for the Liwale Division of Kilwa District, Lindi Province, 1929, 59–60; Burton, “‘The Eye of Authority’,” 79.

51. District Book, Liwale, 60–1.

52. Harris, extract of letter in Agricultural Assistant, Iringa, to District Officer, Iringa, February 28, 1934, TNA/ACC 24 A 3/25. Burton found that in far western Tanganyika a record collection of beeswax in 1940 paid for a substantial portion of local taxes; Burton, “‘The Eye of Authority’,” 84.

53. Kiputi, Shabani, Msham Abdala Mbondo, Hamadi Chanda Mewela. Author interview, Barikiwa, Tanzania, July 22, 2004.

54. Smith, Report of the Beeswax Officer. Tour of Southern Province, October 1950, included in Francis G. Smith to Provincial Commissioner, Southern Province, Lindi, November 13, 1950, TNA/ACC 270 File no. 40, vol. V.

55. Shabani Kiputi, Msham Abdala Mbondo, and Hamadi Chanda Mewela, interview with author, Barikiwa, Tanzania, July 22, 2004.

56. Provincial Agriculture Officer, Southern Province, Lindi, to Director of Agiculture, September 10, 1951, TNA/ACC 270 File no. 40, vol. V.

57. Agricultural Officer, Lindi, extract from monthly report for March, included in Director of Agriculture to Economic Control Board, April 13, 1943, TNA/ACC 32 Lindi, E 2/B/4.

58. Forest Department, Annual Report for 1953, 37.

59. Smith to R. Sangster, Chief Conservator of Forests, February 3, 1956, TNA/ACC 270 J/23.

60. Political Bagamoyo to P.C., Dar es Salaam, July 29, 1943, TNA/ACC 61 Eastern Province, File no. 281, vol. I.

61. District Commisioner, Tabora, to Assistant Superintendent of Police, Tabora, June 4, 1957, TNA/ACC 47 (Tabora) F. 3/9.

62. Cory, H. “Nyamwezi Law and Custom,” Nzega District Book, vol. III, (ND).

63. Neumann, “Africa's ‘Last Wilderness’,” 641–65.

64. Peet and Watts, “Liberating Political Ecology,” 15.

65. Harris, “Native bee-keeping in Tanganyika,” 231.

66. Harris to District Officer, Morogoro, April 11, 1928, TNA/File no. 281, vol. I.

67. Harris, quoted in Director of Agriculture to the Senior Agriculture Officer, i/c North-eastern Circle, Moshi, October 25, 1935, TNA/ACC 270 File no. 40, vol. III.

68. Cooper, Africa since 1940, 91–3.

69. Smith, Beekeeping in the Tropics, 5.

70. Johnson, Swahili–English Dictionary, 103.

71. Native settlement in game reserves, 1923–24, TNA/AB 1132, Serial no. 1135, old file no. 7227.

72. “Liwale Native Authorities.” District Book for the Liwale Division of Kilwa District, Lindi Province, 1929.

73. Neumann, “Africa's ‘Last Wilderness’,” 649, 651.

74. Memorandum on forest policy in relation to native beekeeping, in Agricultural Assistant, Iringa, to District Officer, Iringa, February 28, 1934, TNA/ACC 24 A 3/25 1934–52.

75. Ag. District Officer to Provincial Commissioner, July 30, 1931, TNA/ACC 577 Njombe F. 50/13.

76. Neumann, Imposing Wilderness, 114.

77. District Commissioner, Nachingwea District, extracts from the annual reports of District Commissioners, forestry, 1954, Nachingwea District Book, vol. II.

78. Ag. District Officer to Provincial Commissioner, July 30, 1931, TNA/ACC 577 Njombe F. 50/13.

79. District Officer, Rufiji to Provincial Commissioner, June 6, 1931, TNA/ACC 61 Eastern Province, File no. 281, vol. I.

80. Memorandum on forest policy in relation to native beekeeping, in Agricultural Assistant, Iringa, to District Officer, Iringa, February 28, 1934, TNA/ACC 24 A 3/25 1934–1952.

81. Conservator of Forests, North West Circle to Senior Provincial Commissioners Mwanza and Tabora, Provincial Forest Officers of Lake Province and Western Province, District Commissioners of Lake and Western Province, April 8, 1954, TNA/ACC 47 (Tabora) F. 3/9.

82. Forest Department, Annual Report for 1957, 9.

83. District Officer, Rufiji to Provincial Commissioner, June 6, 1931, TNA/ACC 61 Eastern Province, File no. 281, vol. I.

84. Smith to Director of Agriculture, January 29, 1951, TNA/ACC 270 40/H I.

85. Forest Department, Annual Report for 1935, 12–13; Forest Department, Annual Report for 1950, 31.

86. Smith to Director of Agriculture, January 29, 1951, TNA/ACC 270 40/H I.

87. Hoppe, Lords of the Fly, passim.

88. Entomologist to Director of Agriculture, October 25, 1928, TNA/ACC 61 Eastern Province, File no. 281, vol. I.

89. District Officer, Nzega, to the Agricultural Officer, Tabora, April 1, 1938, TNA/ACC 192, File no. 143.

90. Neumann, “Africa's ‘Last Wilderness’,” 649.

91. Savory, “Safari Diary,” 102.

92. Yngstrom, “Representations of Custom,” 192–3.

93. Minutes of chiefs meetings (1932–34) Tabora District Book.

94. Nzega District Book (ND) Volume II.

95. Forest Division, Annual Report, 2.