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Abstract
In 1991 the Ethiopian Peoples' Revolutionary Democratic Forces (EPRDF), the new party and former insurgent movement that assumed power in Ethiopia, announced a program of democratization and multi-party politics. But after 20 years of rule, no electoral alternation of power on either the national or local level has yet occurred, and what seems to have been institutionalized is a de facto one-party state with undiminished rule of the EPRDF as a vanguard party. There is a significant gap between popular expectations and realities on the ground, compounded by ethno-regional tensions. One of the core problems preventing the emergence of an open political space and a democratic transition is the ideology of “revolutionary democracy”, a self-proclaimed anti-thesis of liberal democracy and based on the Leninist principle of “democratic centralism”. This has allowed a fusion of party and state that negates the separation of powers as well as a system of checks and balances. The hegemonic aspirations of the EPRDF are confirmed and reinforced by the legacy of an inherited authoritarian political culture. In such conditions, elections have not led to the development of democratic practices.
Notes
1. TGE, “Transitional Charter.”
2. TGE, Ethiopia's Economic Policy.
3. FDRE, “Constitution.”
4. Tronvoll, “The Ethiopian 2011 Federal and Regional Elections.”
5. Ninsin, “Introduction”; Schedler, Electoral Authoritarianism.
6. Joseph, “Progress and Retreat.”
7. Ndjio, “Millennial Democracy,” 118, 120.
8. Mazrui, “Democracy in Crisis,” 2.
9. Mazrui, “Democracy in Crisis,” 2.
10. Anebo, “The Ghana 2000 Elections,” 10.
11. Bangura, Authoritarian Rule and Democracy, 23.
12. Van de Walle, “Elections Without Democracy,” 67.
13. Schedler, Electoral Authoritarianism, 3, 5.
14. Schedler, Electoral Authoritarianism, 3, 5.
15. Schedler, Electoral Authoritarianism, 1.
16. Schedler, Electoral Authoritarianism, 1.
17. Schedler, Electoral Authoritarianism, 1.
18. Nugent and Hendrix, “Elections in Africa.”
19. Among these were: Adere People's Democratic Movement, Agew People's Democratic Movement, Burji People's Democratic Organization, Gedeo People's Democratic Organization, Gurage People's Democratic Front, Hadiya Nationality Democratic Organization, Kefa People's Democratic Union, Kembata People's Congress, Omotic People's Democratic Movement, Wolayta People's Democratic Front and Yem National Democratic Movement.
20. Merera, Ethiopia; Leenco, Ethiopian State.
21. Cohen, “Press Release.”
22. TGE, “Transitional Charter.”
23. There are two types of PDO: those that are directly made members of the ruling party (e.g. Oromo People's Democratic Organization, Ethiopian People's Democratic Movement, later renamed Amhara National Democratic Movement) and those which are said to have allied with the ruling party (eg Benishalgun-Gumez People's Democratic Front, Gambella People's Democratic Movement, Harari National League).
24. Compare Merera, Ethiopia; Leenco, The Ethiopian State; Aalen, “Ethiopia's Paradox.”
25. Aregawi, A Political History.
26. Young, Peasant Revolution, 212.
27. Aalen, “Ethiopia's Paradox.”
28. Aalen, “Ethiopia's Paradox.”, 80.
29. Aalen, “Ethiopia's Paradox.”, 80.
30. National Democratic Institute/African American Institute, Elections in Ethiopia, 7.
31. Pausewang, Local and Regional Elections in Ethiopia.
32. TGE, “Transitional Charter.”
33. Merera, Ethiopia; Vestal, “Constitution of Ethiopia.”
34. Pausewang, The 1994 Election.
35. Cf. EPRDF, “Programme,” 1991; Vestal, “Constitution of Ethiopia.”
36. Vestal, “Constitution of Ethiopia,” 35–8.
37. DPSIR, University of Addis Ababa, “The 1995 Elections.”
38. Tronvoll and Aadland, Democratization in Ethiopia, 59.
39. Ottaway, “Ethiopian Transition”; Vestal, “Constitution of Ethiopia.”
40. Merera, Ethiopia, 132–3.
41. Merera, Ethiopia, 135.
42. Tronvoll, “The Ethiopian 2011 Federal and Regional Elections,” 177.
43. HRW, Arbitrary Arrests Continue; HRW, Human Rights Abuses.
44. HRW, Arbitrary Arrests Continue; HRW, Human Rights Abuses.
45. See Aalen and Tronvoll, “The End of Democracy?”; Abbink, “Discomfiture of Democracy.”
46. European Union, Elections 2005.
47. See Aalen and Tronvoll, “The End of Democracy?”; Abbink, “Discomfiture of Democracy.”
48. EU-EOM, Elections 2005, 1.
49. See HPR, FDRE Rules.
50. Clapham, “Comments on the Ethiopian Crisis.”
51. Clapham, “Comments on the Ethiopian Crisis.”
52. Samatar, “The Ethiopian Election of 2005,” 5.
53. Lyons, Avoiding Conflict; Smith, Political Violence; Abbink, “Discomfiture of Democracy.”
54. All were passed by the House of Peoples’ Representatives.
55. EPRDF, Abiyotawi Demokrasi; EPRDF, Yeabiyotawi Demokrasi.
56. Currently (early 2011) the members of EFDUF are: Arena Tigray for Democracy and Sovereignty, Oromo Federalist Democratic Movement, Oromo People's Congress, Social Democratic Party, Southern Ethiopian Peoples’ Democratic Union, and Unity for Democracy and Justice.
57. HPR, “A Proclamation to Provide for the Electoral Code.”
58. Under Ethiopian Electoral Law, there are five election officers per polling station, of which there are c.43,000 nationally.
59. EFDUF, “Complaints”; EFDUF, “Death of Candidate”; Tronvoll, “The Ethiopian 2010 Federal and Regional Elections.”
60. EFDUF, “Complaints”; EFDUF, ‘“Repressive Measures’”; EFDUF, “Press Release.”
61. EFDUF, “Complaints”; EFDUF, ‘“Denouncing Fraudulent Elections’”; HRW, Development Without Freedom; HRW, Repression Rising; HRW, Government Repression.
62. EPRDF, Addis Raey; EPRDF, “Programme.”
63. Addis Admas, Ginbot 14, 2006.
64. BBC News, “Ethiopia Votes”; BBC News, “EU Observers”; BBC News, “Ethiopian Opposition Leaders”; Reuters, “Ethiopia Election Region.”
65. EU-EOM, Elections May 2010, 1.
66. Tronvoll, “The Ethiopian 2011 Federal and Regional Elections,” 12.
67. Eshetu Chole, Underdevelopment in Ethiopia, 205.
68. Ottaway, “Ethiopian Transition.”