Rethinking the state in Idi Amin's Uganda: the politics of exhortation

Abstract

This article – the introduction to a collection of articles on Idi Amin's Uganda – illuminates the infrastructure of Amin's dictatorship. It was through the technology of the news media that Amin's officials found it possible to summon and direct the actions of Uganda's people. The news media's apparently extensive audience made it possible for the authorities to address particular demographic groups who would otherwise fall outside the reach of government bureaucracy. When government officials did actually engage with the real people they addressed, they did so with measuring tapes and typewriters close at hand. In the paper reports they filed, Amin's bureaucrats tidied up complicated social situations, generating statistics that illuminated a particular constituency's adherence to – or deviation from – the official directive. Uganda's command economy was constituted through exhortations, inflated statistics, and other fictions on paper.

Keywords:

• Idi Amin
• Uganda
• state
• dictatorship
• archives

Notes

1. For Kenya, see Hornsby, Kenya, and Branch, Kenya: Between Hope and Despair; for Tanzania, see Ivaska, Cultured States and Brennan, Taifa; for Zanzibar, see Glassman, War of Words, War of Stones. Zambia's post-colonial has likewise attracted historians’ interest: see Gewald et al., One Zambia, Many Histories, Macola, Liberal Nationalism in Central Africa, and Larmer, Rethinking African Politics.

2. Recent additions to this scholarship include Hanson, Landed Obligation, Kodesh, Beyond the Royal Gaze, Doyle, Crisis and Decline in Bunyoro, Medard, Le royaume du Buganda au XIXe siècle, Mutibwa, The Buganda Factor, and Reid, Political Power in Pre-Colonial Buganda.

3. Leopold, Inside West Nile; Finnström, Living with Bad Surroundings.

4. With a few exceptions, particularly Hansen and Twaddle, Uganda Now and Hansen and Twaddle, Changing Uganda. On colonial Uganda there is Thompson, Governing Uganda and Low, The Fabrication of Empire.

5. Kyemba, State of Blood.

6. “Read Newspapers and Uplift your Standards,” Voice of Uganda 1 (79), March 6, 1973.

7. For example, Bunker, Peasants Against the State and Whyte, Questioning Misfortune.

8. Twaddle, “Ganda Receptivity to Change” and Mamdani, Politics and Class Formation. There also appeared manuscripts based on earlier research, e.g. Cohen, Womunafu's Bunafu and Tosh, Clan Leaders and Colonial Chiefs.

9. Musisi, “Transformations of Baganda Women”; Reid, “Economic and Military Change in Nineteenth-Century Buganda”; Hanson, “When the Miles Came”; and Doyle, “An Environmental History.”

10. Decalo, “Military Coups and Military Regimes” and Lofchie, “The Political Origins of the Uganda Coup.”

11. Katono, “Western Newspapers’ Coverage of Idi Amin.”

12. Kyemba, State of Blood and Kiwanuka, Amin and the Tragedy of Uganda.

13. Melady and Melady, Idi Amin Dada.

14. Decalo, “Military Coups and Military Regimes,” and Decalo, Coups and Army Rule in Africa. Quoted in Sathyamurthy, The Political Development of Uganda, 634.

15. Katono, “Western Newspapers’ Coverage of Idi Amin.”

16. Amin, “New Year's Message”; Moyo, “Uganda.”

17. An agency collected British newspaper clippings on Uganda, including those from small regional papers, for official monitoring. Some of these files are housed in the Uganda National Archives in Entebbe. Amin's former adviser Bob Astles claims that Amin relied on “one special right hand man for this, a Pakistani/British Asian called Malik. They were very close.” Email communication with Taylor, January 17, 2007. On the Denis Hills affair, see Hills, “Postscript – ‘Let a Man Lie in Prison’,” in Hills, The White Pumpkin, 326–44. On threats against French citizens in response to the documentary, see “2001 video interview with Barbet Schroeder” on Idi Amin Dada, directed by Barbet Schroeder (Criterion Collection, 2002).

18. Amin's former Minister of Health Henry Kyemba described the scene following a cabinet meeting, which Schroeder's crew included in the film as an example of Amin's ruthlessness as he denounced Foreign Minister Michael Ondoga, who was dismissed and murdered several weeks later. “Immediately after the television crew had left, [Amin] joked about his performance. ‘How did it come out?’ he asked me, laughing.” Kyemba, State of Blood, 111.

19. “Folksy” was Carlos Russell's term, while Ali Mazrui considered Amin “a common man from the womb of the countryside” despite the General's long military background. Mazrui, “The Social Origins of Ugandan Presidents,” 3. The South African journalist Colin Legum was among those who considered Amin's “clown[ish] performance” a diversion. Legum, “Behind the Clown's Mask.”

20. Petersen, “U.S. Black Newspaper Coverage,” and Nayenga, “Myths and Realities of Idi Amin Dada's Uganda.” The quotation is from Carlos Russell on The MacNeil/Lehrer Report: “Idi Amin.” Library #372, Show #2127. March 1, 1977. Minister Louis Farrakhan visited Uganda at Idi Amin's invitation in 1976, while Stokely Carmichael and Roy Innis received honorary Ugandan citizenship for their support of Amin's government. Mittelman, Ideology and Politics in Uganda, 243, and Mamdani, Imperialism and Fascism, 95.

21. Colin Legum was a close friend and admirer of Milton Obote since the 1950s, while both he and David Martin frequently referenced accounts by recent defectors for Africa Contemporary Record and the Guardian/Observer. He and the International Commission of Jurists relied on former Minister of Education Edward Rugumayo, who defected in 1973 and would go on to join scholars Yash Tandon, Dan Nabudere, and Omwony Ojwok as the ‘Gang of Four’ in the brief transitional UNLF administration following Amin's overthrow.

22. Kyemba, State of Blood; Kiwanuka, Amin and the Tragedy of Uganda.

23. Kyemba, State of Blood, 109; Kibedi, “The Story Continues,” 30.

24. Melady and Melady, Idi Amin Dada, 109; Martin, General Amin, 14; Smith, Ghosts of Kampala, 37; Grahame, Amin and Uganda, 23; Listowel, Amin, 12.

25. Post, Leaders and Their Followers, 17; “Office of the Historian – Historical Documents – Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969–1976, Volume E-5, Part 1, Documents on Sub-Saharan Africa, 1969–1972 – Document 258. “Conversation Between President Nixon and the President's Assistant for National Security Affairs (Kissinger), Camp David, September 24, 1972, 11:37–11:52 a.m.” http://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve05p1/d258 (accessed August 12, 2011).

26. Leopold, Inside West Nile, 57.

27. Mazrui, “Social Origins of Ugandan Presidents,” 4; Mazrui, Soldiers and Kinsmen, 76; Mazrui, “Phallic Symbols in Politics and War,” 61.

28. See Mazrui, “Soldiers as Traditionalizers.”

29. Burton, “Interview with Aidan Southall.”

30. Southall, “General Amin and the Coup.”

31. Hansen, Ethnicity and Military Rule in Uganda, 73, 86.

32. Mamdani, Politics and Class Formation; Kabwegyere, The Politics of State Formation.

33. Brett, “Political Economy of General Amin,” 15.

34. Mamdani, “Class Struggles in Uganda”; Mamdani, Politics and Class Formation; Mamdani, Imperialism and Fascism; Tandon, “Asians’ Role in East Africa”; O'Brien [pseudonym for Yash Tandon], “General Amin and the Uganda Asians”; O'Brien, Brown Britons.

35. The statue was commissioned in July 1962 by the committee responsible for organizing Uganda's independence celebrations, and executed by the artist Gregory Maloba. Makerere University Archives AR J 3/3: Independence Celebration Advisory Committee, July 18, 1962; Kyeyune, “Art in Uganda in the 20th Century,” 82–97, 288.

36. Kasozi, Social Origins of Violence; Mutibwa, Uganda Since Independence; Kirunda-Kivejinja, Uganda; Karugire, Roots of Instability.

37. For example, see the “panel discussion” format in Rukandema, Uganda.

38. Jose Chameleone, “Basiima Ogenze – Dr. Jose Chameleone” (video, 2010) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v =2e7v8Oibbu0 (accessed October 20, 2011; “Idi Amin Had a Good Side – Author,” New Vision, May 20, 2009; Sembuya, The Other Side of Idi Amin Dada.

39. For example, Kanyeihamba, John Bikangaga; Kakubi, Memoirs of a Priestly and Episcopal Life.

40. Bundibugyo District Archives (hereafter BDA) Box 501, “Uganda Police, 1974” file: District Police Commander to DC Semuliki, October 3, 1974.

41. BDA Box 521, “Rural Development” file: D.C. Semuliki to all county chiefs, December 27, 1976.

42. BDA Box 513, “Planning” file: Semuliki District Team meeting, July 26, 1977.

43. Kasese District Archives (hereafter KasDA) “Annual Reports” file: Community Development Officer, Bukonjo, annual report for 1979.

44. BDA Box 531, “Mis. 3” file: Sub-county Chief Harugale to County Chief Bwamba, August 19, 1974.

45. BDA Box 507, “Furniture” file: Treasurer Semuliki District to Executive Secretary, Western Province, April 1975.

46. KasDA loose papers: Rwenzori District Administration, Finance Committee minutes, September 30, 1977.

47. “Now it's Voice of Uganda,” Voice of Uganda, December 2, 1972. 1 (1).

48. Editorial letter, Mwanainehira Gazeti, Voice of Uganda, April 11, 1974, 1 (421).

49. BDA Box 513, “Planning” file: Semuliki District Team meeting, December 18, 1974.

50. BDA Box 522, “Postal Services” file: D.C. Semuliki to Postmaster, Fort Portal, April 17, 1978.

51. BDA Box 502, “Complaints and Enquiries” file: John Bukombi, DC Bundibugyo, to Permanent Secretary, Office of the President, October 5, 1981.

52. Gariyo, Media, Constitutionalism and Democracy, 33–34.

53. “National Language, New Flag being Considered,” Voice of Uganda, May 15, 1973, 1 (139).

54. “Broadcasts in Rwamba,” Voice of Uganda, March 17, 1973.

55. “National Language, New Flag Being Considered,” Voice of Uganda, May 15, 1973, 1 (139).

56. “Amnesty Period for Rwenzururu,” Voice of Uganda, March 8, 1973.

57. “President Discusses Cleanliness,” Voice of Uganda, April 3, 1973.

58. “General Amin has One Wife and Others are Out,” Voice of Uganda, March 26, 1974, 1 (407).

59. Editorial letter, A.R. Khadiagala, in Voice of Uganda, March 30, 1974, 1 (411).

60. “Decree Bans Women's Wigs and Trousers,” Voice of Uganda, February 5, 1974, 1 (365).

61. Ivaska, Cultured States, chap. 2.

62. Editorial letter, C. Kakembo, Voice of Uganda, February 27, 1974, 1 (384).

63. “Uganda Introduces New Currency,” Voice of Uganda, January 25, 1973, 1 (45).

64. KasDA “Fin/1” file: DC Toro, “The Exercise of Exchanging the Old Bank Notes for the New Ones,” January 31, 1973.

65. “Changing the Old Currency,” Voice of Uganda, February 2, 1973.

66. BDA Box 501, “Uganda Police, 1974–” file: Sgt. William Baker to OC Police Ntoroko, November 25, 1976.

67. KasDA “Meetings, Busongora County” file: Busongora County Team meeting, October 31, 1974.

68. KasDA, “Bukonjo County meetings” file: Bukonjo County meeting, September 1, 1976.

69. BDA Box 513, “Planning” file: Semuliki District Team meeting, January 19, 1976.

70. E.g. BDA Box 503, “Death” file: Y. Kawamara to all head teachers, Semuliki district, August 25, 1976.

71. BDA Box 513, “Planning” file: DC Semuliki, “A short welcome speech for the occasion of Africa Day,” May 25, 1976.

72. BDA Box 513, “Celebrations, Ministry of Information” file: “DC's speech on the occasion of the visit of the Hon. Minister of Commerce to Semuliki District,” October 21, 1975.

73. KasDA “Staff meetings and traders meetings” file: Meeting of Kasese traders, March 15, 1973.

74. KasDA “Boma file”: Regional Agriculture Officer to all saza chiefs, March 15, 1971.

75. KasDA, file with no cover: HE the President of Uganda Alhaji General Idi Amin Dada, “Nine Point Plan to Farmers to Double the Production of Cotton and Produce More Money for Themselves and the Country,” n.d. (but 1974).

76. KasDA “Information and Publicity” file: No author, “Announcement,” August 27, 1975.

77. Interview: Yustasi Mukirane, Bwera Town, June 3, 2010.

78. KasDA “Bukonjo county meetings” file: Bukonjo County meeting, September 1, 1976.

79. KasDA, file with no cover: DC Toro to members of the District Cotton Judging Competition, January 4, 1973.

80. Amin, Uganda: Five Years under Military Government, 3. Cited in Decker, “Idi Amin's Dirty War.”

81. BDA Box 513, “Planning” file: Bundibugyo District Team meeting, July 15, 1975.

82. KasDA “Circulars from DC Kasese” file: “Report of the Hon. Governor, Mr. Alex Owour's Tour of Rwenzori District,” July 1978.

83. KasDA “Department of Youth” file: “Programme of Activities for the Development of Youths,” July 27, 1976.

84. See Ivaska, Cultured States, Lal, “Militants, Mothers, and the National Family,” and, more generally, Burton and Charton-Bigot, Generations Past.

85. BDA Box 512, “Trade and Commerce” file: DC Semuliki, circular to all traders, March 19, 1974.

86. KasDA “Busongora Conty: District Team” file: District Team meeting, September 6, 1978.

87. KasDA file with no cover: Sub-county chief Kilembe to parish chiefs, April 23, 1974.

88. KasDA file with no cover: County Chief Busongora to Sub-county Chief Bugoye, March 26, 1976.

89. KasDA file with no cover: Health Inspector Busongora, report on the results of the Fishing Villages’ Health and Sanitation Competition, 1977.

90. BDA Box 513, “Celebrations, Ministry of Information” file: DC Bundibugyo, “An Address to the Residents of Bundinyama Parish,” n.d. (but 1975).

91. Interview: Yustasi Mukirane, Bwera town, June 3, 2010.

92. BDA Box 513, “Celebrations, Ministry of Information” file: County Chief Karugutu to Information Officer, Semuliki, February 1, 1977.

93. BDA “Contagious Diseases” file: District Medical Officer Bundibugyo to Senior Medical Officer, Western Province, June 9, 1981.

94. KasDA “Circulars from D.C. Kasese” file: Report of the Honourable Governor, Mr. Alex Owor's tour of Rwenzori District, July 1978.

95. BDA Box 509, “Trade and Commerce” file: Trade Development Officer, Kampala to Provincial Commissioner for Commerce, Kampala, April 14, 1976.

96. BDA Box 501, “Uganda Police, 1974” file: County Chief Ntoroko to Deputy Police Commander, Semuliki, December 27, 1976.

97. BDA Box 508, “Cotton” file: District Agriculture Officer Semuliki to Agriculture Assistant, Karugutu, August 30, 1976.

98. BDA Box 508, “Cotton” file: Agriculture Assistant Karugutu to District Agriculture Officer, Semuliki, September 4, 1976.

99. BDA Box 518, “Information Services – General” file: Baker to Information Officer, Semuliki, December 30, 1974.

100. BDA Box 518, “Information Services – General” file: Baker to Information Officer, Semuliki, January 17, 1975.

101. BDA Box 513, “Celebrations, Ministry of Information” file: Baker to Information Officer, Semuliki, April 26, 1977.

102. BDA Box 518, “Information Services – General” file: Baker to Information Officer, Semuliki, October 4, 1974.

103. KasDA “Information and Publicity” file: Circular letter, Rwenzori District Information Officer, February 1, 1979.

104. BDA Box 513, file with no cover: Provincial Information Officer, Western, to Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, March 12, 1975.

105. BDA Box 514, “Cooperatives” file: William Baker to DC Semuliki, March 7, 1977.

106. See e.g. Hamilton et al., Refiguring the Archive, Burton, Archive Stories, and Stoler, Along the Archival Grain.

107. In Western Province the amount of cotton planted in 1976–77 amounted to 15,363 hectares, down from 32,486 hectares in 1975–76. KasDA “Annual Reports: Provinces” file: Dept. of Agriculture, Western Province, Annual Report for 1976.

108. See, among other works, Hansen and Twaddle, Uganda Now, and Hansen and Twaddle, Changing Uganda.

109. Hansen, Ethnicity and Military Rule in Uganda.