Adapting to the new path: Khatmiyya Sufi authority, the al-Mirghani family, and Eritrean nationalism during British Occupation, 1941–1949

Abstract

This article examines the relationship between Sufi authorities and political transformation in Eritrea during the mid- and late 1940s. It analyzes the role of Eritrea's largest and most influential Sufi order, the Khatmiyya, and how its leadership struggled to maintain its influence amidst the rapidly changing political and social climate initiated by the collapse of Italian colonial authority in 1941. With the arrival of the British Military Administration (BMA), much of the region comprising the Khatmiyya's historical heartland in western and northern Eritrea experienced rapid social and political transformation, as landless Tigre-speaking peasants mobilized a widespread emancipation movement to assert their economic independence, while other Muslim groups beyond the Khatmiyya's base articulated a pro-independence political platform. This article argues that Khatmiyya authorities were largely unable to transition the order from its previous role as an Italian-supported Sufi power into a legitimate authority in post-colonial Eritrea. The Khatmiyya leadership's half-hearted, compromised support for “serf” emancipation among Tigre-speaking groups and its eventual withdrawal from the Eritrean nationalist movement signaled a major decline in the order's influence by the end of the decade. This article thus looks at the role of Khatmiyya authorities to help illuminate one of the more complex and misunderstood aspects of Eritrea's early nationalist history.

Keywords:

• Eritrea
• Sufism
• Khatmiyya
• al-Mirghani
• Muslim League
• Nationalism

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to Professor Jonathan Miran for his comments on a previous draft of this article. I am also thankful to two anonymous reviewers who provided invaluable commentary and suggestions on a previous draft. Any errors or misstatements herein are entirely my responsibility.

Notes

1. For a deeper analysis of Sufi interactions with colonial authorities, particularly those in West Africa, see Robinson, Paths of Accommodation.

2. Vikør, “Sufi Brotherhoods in Africa,” 468.

3. In both modern-day Eritrea and Ethiopia, the historically dominant branch of Christianity has been the Tewahedo Orthodox Church. “Tewahedo,” derived from the ancient Ge'ez language and meaning “unified” or “being made one,” is the term prescribed to followers of the Oriental Orthodox Christian Church in Ethiopia and Eritrea. As one of the oldest Christian sects in the world, followers within the Tewahedo community adhere to the Monophysite tradition with regards to the singular nature of Christ. They form the largest Christian denomination in both Ethiopia and Eritrea.

4. Historically, even establishing “ethnic” distinctions for some of these particular groups has been problematic. Several of the subgroups within the country's Tigre-speaking communities consider themselves to be an entirely separate entity; Nadel, “Notes on Beni Amir Society,” 51–94; Ghebre Iyesus, Arguments for Shedding Some Light on the Tigré Phenomenon.

5. The Tigre represent approximately 40% of Eritrea's population.

6. Miran, “Constructing and Deconstructing the Tigre Frontier Space,” 37.

7. Miran, Red Sea Citizens, 30. Transliterated Arabic terms have followed the most recent guidelines set forth by the International Journal of Middle East Studies, while Tigrinya language terms have adhered to the most common versions found within the previous English language literature. Likewise, individual names, places, and technical terms originating among Eritrea's Tigre-speaking communities have been rendered in the standardized English form.

8. Tesfagiorgis, Eritrea (Africa in Focus), 172.

9. Miran, “Historical Overview of Islam in Eritrea,” 192.

10. Miran, Red Sea Citizens, 178; also Voll, “History of the Khatmiyyah Tariqah in the Sudan.”

11. Ghebre Iyesus, Arguments for Shedding Some Light on the Tigré Phenomenon.

12. Miran, “Historical Overview of Islam in Eritrea,” 195.

13. Miran, “Historical Overview of Islam in Eritrea,” 196. Between 1881 and 1898, much of the territory within the modern Republic of Sudan came under the rule of the Mahdiyya, or the Mahdist State. It began initially as a broad-based religious movement under the Islamic mystic Muhammad Ahmad. Upon defeating local Sudanese rivals as well as British forces, his followers established an independent state that posed a serious threat to several European powers, including Italy, France, and especially Great Britain; Holt, Mahdist State in Sudan; Kramer, Holy City on the Nile.

14. Miran, “Historical Overview of Islam in Eritrea,” 198; also Bruzzi, “Colonialismo italiana e la Hatmiyya in Eritrea.”

15. Miran, Red Sea Citizens, 186–187.

16. Miran, Red Sea Citizens, 186–187.

17. Miran, “Historical Overview of Islam in Eritrea,” 203.

18. While the term “tigre” served as a pejorative for someone of servant status, it also developed into a marker for the wider ethno-cultural identity of all those, vassal and shumagulle alike, who came from the Tigre-speaking areas. In the context of this study, “tigre” with a lower case spelling refers to those Tigre-speaking peoples of vassal or “serf” origins.

19. Trevaskis, Kennedy. Papers of Sir Kennedy Trevaskis [henceforth Trevaskis Papers], Bodleian Library of Commonwealth & African Studies at Rhodes House, Oxford University, Oxford, MSS Brit Emp S. 367, Box 1(B), “The Tigre-Speaking Peoples,” 126.

20. For information about the origins of “tigre” as a marker for vassal status, see Ghebre Iyesus, Arguments for Shedding Some Light on the Tîgré Phenomenon, 30–37; Pollera, Popolazioni Indigene dell ‘Eritrea, 196–197, 226–227; and Rossini, Principli di Diritto Consuetudinario dell ‘Eritrea, 541–721.

21. Tesfagiorgis, Eritrea (Africa in Focus), 172–174; also Seligman and Seligman, “Note on the History and Present Condition of the Beni-Amer,” 83–97.

22. Tesfai, Aynfelale, 69.

23. At the height of tigre discontent, representatives claimed that more than 100 subgroups existed across the territory; Trevaskis Papers, Box 2 (A), Four Power Commission of Investigation for the Former Italian Colonies [henceforth Four Power Commission], Report on Eritrea, “Letter of Tigré Representatives,” Appx 18, 3. The Four Power Commission, a group composed of representatives from Britain, France, the United States, and the Soviet Union, first convened talks in London in September 1945 to discuss the future of Italy's former colonial territories, including Eritrea. It was not until November 1947 that representatives arrived in Eritrea on a fact-finding mission to ascertain local political attitudes.

24. Trevaskis Papers, Box 1(B), “The Tigre-Speaking Peoples,” 128.

25. Tesfai, Aynfelale, 69–74.

26. Trevaskis, Kennedy. “Dispute Between the Shumagulle and Tigre of the ‘Ad Takles,” 1, BMA/DIS 260/kel 10957/62, Research and Documentation Center [henceforth RDC], Asmara.

27. Major Lea, “Major Lea to the Military Administrator, O.E.T.A, Eritrea,” 4, BMA/DIS 260/kel 10957/1, RDC, Asmara.

28. Major Lea, “Major Lea to the Military Administrator, O.E.T.A, Eritrea,” 1.

29. Longrigg, Stephen. “Dispute Between Shumagulle and Tigre,” 7, BMA/DIS 260/kel 109577, RDC, Asmara.

30. “Tigre–Shumagalle Dispute,” 1, BMA/DIS 260/kel 10957/68, RDC, Asmara.

31. “Tigre–Shumagalle Dispute,” 44.

32. Nadel, “Notes on Beni Amir Society,” 65; also Morley, Colonial Postscript: Diary of a District Officer, 154.

33. Many shumagulle also served in influential positions within the order throughout northern and western Eritrea; Aberra Osman Aberra, interview with the author, Ottawa, ON, Canada, July 23, 2010.

34. BMA/DIS 260/kel 10957/15, “Land Disputes (Shumagulle v. Tigre: Ad Takles),” 1. He is also listed in BMA records as Hamed Humid Tahge and Hamid Humed Tei.

35. Dirar, “Colonialism and the Construction of National Identities,” 256–276. Tahgé continued his political activities in later years, becoming involved in the wider nationalist movement and serving as a leading representative of the Eritrean Muslim League's Keren branch.

36. Despite his prestigious position in the brotherhood, Sayyid Muhammad Abu Bakr al-Mirghani often received criticism for his apparent disinterest and idleness in regional political affairs.

37. BMA/DIS 260/kel 10957/42, “Major R. Signals to BMA Chief Administrator. ‘Ad Tecles Disobedience,” 1.

38. BMA/DIS 260/kel 10957/92, 6.

39. Miran, “Constructing and Deconstructing the Tigre Frontier Space,” 40.

40. Trevaskis Papers, Box 1(B), “Tigre-Speaking Peoples,” 107.

41. Trevaskis Papers, Box 2(A), “Letter of Tigré Representatives,” Appx 18, 3–4; Box 1(B). “The Tigre-Speaking Peoples,” 19.

42. BMA/DIS 260/kel 10957/89, “To H.E. Brigadier C. D'arcy Mc. Carthy O.B.E. Chief Administrator- Eritrea- Asmara,” 9; also Trevaskis Papers, Box 2 (A), Four Power Commission of Investigation for the Former Italian Colonies, Report on Eritrea, “The Question of the Tigré,” Appx 17, 2.

43. BMA/DIS 260/kel 10957/89, “To H.E. Brigadier C. D'arcy Mc. Carthy O.B.E. Chief Administrator- Eritrea- Asmara,” 9; also Trevaskis Papers, Box 2 (A), Four Power Commission of Investigation for the Former Italian Colonies, Report on Eritrea, “The Question of the Tigré,” Appx 17, 16.

44. BMA/DIS 260/kel 10957/89, “To H.E. Brigadier C. D'arcy Mc. Carthy O.B.E. Chief Administrator- Eritrea- Asmara,” 15–20.

45. Arefayne Bairu, “A Short History of Shaykh Ibrahim Sultan,” 2–3, RDC, Asmara, Eritrea, January 10, 1990.

46. Arefayne Bairu, “A Short History of Shaykh Ibrahim Sultan,” 2–3, RDC, Asmara, Eritrea, January 10, 1990.; also Nadel, “Notes on Beni Amir Society,” 57.

47. Ibrahim Sultan, interview with Ahmed Haji Ali.

48. Ahmed, “History of Al-Rabita Al-Islamiya Al-Eritrea (1946–50),” 129–149.

49. “This is the Muslim League.” Sawt al-rabita al-islamiyya February 25, 1947: 2; also Nay Ertra Semunawi Gazzetta, March 5, 1947: 1; Tesfai, Aynfelale, 199; Ahmed, “History of Al-Rabita Al-Islamiya Al-Eritrea, 135.

50. Four Power Commission, Appx 106: “Memorandum on Aims and Program,” 4.

51. Nebil Ahmed, interview with the author, Athens, OH, USA, November 29, 2009. One of the more prominent League supporters was Osman al-Mirghani, Sayyid Abu Bakr's younger brother and a close confident of Ibrahim Sultan; FO 742/23, “The Case of Morgani and Its Possible Development,” 32.

52. Muhammad Said Abu, “Let Us Abandon Ignorance and Move toward Knowledge and Work.” Sawt al-rabita al-islamiyya, April 17, 1947: 1.

53. RDC/01714. Mehmedin Ahmed Se'id, interview.

54. Nation Child, “Untitled.” Sawt al-rabita al-islamiyya, December 23, 1947: 3.

55. FO 742/23, “22 Zulhigga 1367 (25/10/48),” 33.

56. FO 742/23, Report No. 6610/61928.

57. FO 742/23, Report No. 6610/61930.

58. Aberra Osman Aberra, interview with the author.

59. Aberra Osman Aberra, interview with the author.

60. Aberra Osman Aberra, interview with the author.

61. Aberra Osman Aberra, interview with the author.

62. FO 403, No. 48, “Eritrea: Monthly Political Summer No. 1,” 105.

63. Ismael al-Mukhtar, interview with the author, Athens, OH, USA, October 14, 2009.

64. FO 742/23, “The Case of Morgani and Its Possible Development.”

65. Shifta is a widespread term throughout Eritrea denoting a person's status as a thief or outlaw. In the context of this article, it refers to individuals involved in anti-Muslim, anti-nationalist attacks across the region during the late 1940s; Ogbasellassie, “Shifta Problems in the Kebessa Regions of Eritrea,” 51–63.

66. FO 1015/138, 2(A).

67. FO 1015/138, 10.

68. FO 1015/138, 17.

69. FO 1015/138, 35–36.

70. FO 1015/138, Appx B, “New Tribal Organization of the Nacfa District,” 35–37.

71. FO 1015/138, 2(A), J.M. Benoy, January 24, 1949.

72. Throughout the League's first months, the Mufti carefully followed its developments through his association with many top officials, including his brother hajj Suleiman Ahmed Umar, who served on the League's Executive Council; Ismael al-Mukhtar, interview.

73. Venosa, “‘Because God has Given Us the Power of Reasoning,’” 29–62.

74. For a broader overview of Sufi political mobilization in Sudan, see Karrar, Sufi Brotherhoods in the Sudan.