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Abstract
President Museveni's re-election in February 2011 demonstrated once more the skills of the Ugandan leader to remain in control ever since he took over power in 1986 heading a guerrilla movement. Some of the campaign themes dealt with land and administration, others with security and the role of the armed forces in bringing back peace to the country. Museveni's populist stance in favour of squatters, in places where user rights are threatened by the progress of individual titling, came out prominently. Actual gifts and many promises of money, land, new districts as well as offers of protection were made during the campaign. These were meant to foster moral indebtedness and political support for the regime and its leader, making it difficult to break off from such an uneven relationship. This paper focuses on the double-edged politics of dependency and protection in Uganda.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the funding from the Deepening Democracy Programme (DDP) in Kampala and the support of the French Institute for Research in Africa (IFRA) in Nairobi, as well as the insightful comments of reviewers.
Notes
1. Betty Nambooze at the Mukono rally, February 2, 2011.
2. The name ‘Madam Teacher’ originates from radio talk-shows; Brisset-Foucault, “‘Polis academy.’”
3. Nambooze at the Mukono rally, February 2, 2011.
4. Carbone, ‘Populism’ Visits Africa, p. 7.
5. Lumu, “Nambooze Pushes for Muganda President”; Kato, “Nambooze Rides on Her Tongue to Parliament.”
6. Tripp, Museveni's Uganda.
7. Perrot, “Entrepreneurs de l'insécurité,” p. 71.
8. On the concept of neopatrimonialism, see Bach and Gazibo, Neopatrimonialism in Africa; and Darbon, Le comparatisme.
9. Rubongoya, Regime Hegemony.
10. Bruhns, “Weber's Patrimonial Domination,” p. 13.
11. Médard, Le royaume du Buganda; Hanson, Landed Obligation.
12. Kanyinga, “Re-Distribution from Above”; Klopp, “Electoral Despotism in Kenya”; Klopp, “Deforestation and Democratization”; Médard, “Territoires de l'ethnicité”; Médard, “Key Issues.”
13. Klopp, “Electoral Despotism in Kenya.”
14. Lonsdale, “Moral Economy of Mau Mau”; Klopp, “Can Moral Ethnicity Trump Political Tribalism?”
15. Kiva, “NRM Village Campaign Teams Reject Cash.”
16. Carbone, ‘Populism’ Visits Africa; Goodfellow and Titeca, “Presidential Intervention.”
17. Mauss, Essai sur le don.
18. Sahlins, Stone Age Economics.
19. Gyezaho, “Museveni Spells Out 13-Point Manifesto.”
20. Such as William Kibuuka singing in praise of Buganda kingdom at opposition rallies.
21. Batre, “Museveni Cash Divides Vurra NRM Leaders”; Sserunjogi, “One Year After the Elections”; Asiimwe, “Museveni Reveals Strategy in Buganda.”
22. Bindhe, “Museveni Campaign Funds Boost Business in Masaka.”
23. Mubiri, “CSOs Irked by Court Ruling.”
24. Kiva, “Opposition Candidates Find Solace”; Odongtho, “Museveni Winds Campaigns at Kololo Airstrip.”
25. Luwaga, “Museveni Cash Sparks off Confusion.”
26. Interview with Nambooze, Mukono, February 7, 2011; Musoke, “Do Not Vote Nambooze.”
27. Nambooze at the Mukono rally, February 2, 2011.
28. Nambooze at the Mukono rally, February 2, 2011.
29. The term ‘Balaalo’ is widely used in Uganda to describe pastoralists who have settled in different parts of the country; Akweteireho, “Buliisa MP Injured in Land Clashes.”
30. Kivabulaya, “Pastoralist Vow”; Kivabulaya, “Controversy Surrounds Ownership.”
31. Akweteireho, “Buliisa MP Injured in Land Clashes.”
32. Odongtho, “Buliisa MP Wants RDC Removed.”
33. Akweteireho, “UPDF Evicts Balaalo”; Akweteireho, “Anti-Riot Deployed.”
34. Kivabulaya, “Evicted Buliisa Pastoralists.”
35. Kivabulaya, “Pastoralist Vow.”
36. Kivabulaya, “Buliisa Pastoralists’ Case Pushed to Next Week”; Mugerwa, “Balaalo Victory in Court.”
37. Muzoora, “Pastoralists Divided Over Eviction Case.”
38. Muzoora, “Wrangles Jeopardise Balaalo Relocation.”
39. Kolyanghaa, “Residents Invade Mt. Elgon”; Odongtho, “Mt. Elgon Encroachers to Leave”; Mafabi, “Museveni Wants Part of Mt. Elgon Park.”
40. Tenywa, “Uganda's Forest Cover Dwindling.”
41. Matter, “Clashing Claims.”
42. Mwesigye, “Museveni Vows to Settle.”
43. Kaaya, “NFA to Evict 80,000 Families”; Médard and Golaz, “Utopies à Rakai.”
44. Bindhe, “Rakai Pastoralists Threaten to Sue.”
45. Mambule and Ssejjoba, “Museveni Okays Establishment of Free Trade Zone.”
46. Bbaale, “Rakai Residents Refuse to Leave.”
47. Agencies, “800 Pastoralists Displaced.”
48. ‘An Act to amend the Land Act to enhance the security of occupancy of lawful and bona fide occupants on registered land’; Republic of Uganda, “Land Amendment Act, 2010”, p. 2.
49. Gay, “Hégémonie politique.”
50. Golaz and Médard, “Titres de propriété et insécurité foncière.”
51. Interview with Nambooze, Mukono, February 7, 2011.
52. Médard, “Key Issues.”
53. Chauveau, “Question foncière et construction nationale”; Geschiere, Perils of Belonging.
54. Kasfir, “Explaining Ethnic Political Participation.”
55. Médard, “‘Indigenous’ Land Claims in Kenya”; Lynch, I Say To You.
56. Baral and Brisset-Foucault, “Les émeutes de septembre 2009.”
57. The Banyala are a non-Ganda minority group; Nakayi, Decentralization and the Situation.
58. Kivabulaya, “Tribal Politics Take Center Stage.”
59. Odongtho, “Buliisa LC 5 Boss, Woman MP.”
60. Kivabulaya, “Police on High Alert.”
61. Mugerwa, “Bunyoro Rejects Ban”; Basiime, “Ban on Bunyoro Land Titles.”
62. Kivabulaya, “Buliisa District Land Board Takes Over.”
63. Kivabulaya, “Controversy Surrounds Ownership.”
64. Akweteireho, “Buliisa LC5 Chairman Sacks the Only Woman.”
65. Akweteireho, “Buliisa LC3 Boss Released.”
66. Gyezaho, “Uganda Cultural Leaders Bill”; New Vision, “Parliament Passes Cultural Leaders’ Bill”; Republic of Uganda, “Institution of Traditional or Cultural Leaders Act, 2011.”
67. Bareebe and Naturinda. “Kabaka Summons Lukiiko Over Bill.”
68. Mugerwa, “Buganda Explains Why It Opposes.”
69. Nambooze at the Mukono rally, February 2, 2011.
70. Nambooze at the Mukono rally, February 2, 2011.
71. Ssekika, “Bunyoro Kingdom Rejects New Counties.”
72. Katureebe and Njoroge. “Museveni Districts Breeding Tribal Wars?”
73. Green, “Patronage, District Creation, and Reform”, p. 437.
74. The Land Act 1998 created the Land Fund; Muganbwa, Source Book of Uganda's Land Law, p. 62.
75. Museveni, “Why I support Mabira Forest Give-Away.”
76. Njoroge, “Billions Pumped into Loss-Making Scoul”; Miti and Kasozi. “Mabira Must Go.”
77. Nalugo, “MPs Dare Museveni on Mabira Forest.”
78. Wanambwa, “Museveni Does Not Listen Anymore.”
79. Kafeero, “Why Favour Foreigners Over Locals.”
80. Lumu, “How Museveni's Call to Mama Mabira”; Habati, “Museveni Shouldn't Be Mehta's Spokesman.”
81. Mayers, “Forest Protest Ends in Teargas and Death.”
82. Njoroge, “Kabaka Again Offers Land”; Bindhe, “Sango Bay Investor Offers Land.”
83. Kaaya, “Save Mabira.”
84. Museveni, “Why I support Mabira Forest Give-Away.”
85. Duvail et al., “Les stratégies des communautés locales.”
86. Lucima, “Why Is Amuru Land Itching the President?”; Eriku, “Government Apologises Over Amuru Land”; also Sjögren, “Uganda: Land Disputes.”
87. Zeemeijer, “Who Gets What, When and How?”
88. Bindhe, “Official: Rakai Politicians Frustrating Eviction.”
89. Médard and Golaz, “Utopies à Rakai.”
90. SMSMedia, “Choose Prosperity Not Tribalism.”
91. Mufumba, “‘Prosperity for All.’”