Abstract
Kenya recognizes tourism as an important economic sector with significant potential to contribute to the national gross domestic product (GDP) and to the country's sustainable development goals. Ecotourism ideals intend to enable communities to benefit from the use of natural and cultural resources available to them by fostering sustainable socio-economic development while maintaining the integrity of those resources. Presently, participation in ecotourism and sustainable development is an issue of contention; mounting criticism due to lack of substantive outcomes, on the one hand, are weighed against conventional tourism characterized by the absence of community participation altogether, producing progressive discourse with the potential to revolutionize conceptualization and practice of participation. To engage with this debate, the objective of this study was to explore individual and household experiences of long-term participation in Kimana Community Wildlife Sanctuary, a former flagship ecotourism initiative in Kenya. Using secondary data, in-depth interviews, a survey, and participant observation in the community hosting the sanctuary, the study found conflicting experiences of participation, especially in the conceptualization and operation of their communal ecotourism initiative. Even though the initiative has been reported as being inclusive and profitable, the study found differentiated experiences of participation, some of which were congruent and others incongruent with the positive ecotourism outcomes previously reported for this initiative. The study advocates reflexive participation by the community together with national and local institutional changes in order to substantiate community power to impact meaningfully upon the performance of community-based ecotourism partnerships.
Acknowledgements
The author thanks Dr Moses Okello, Director and Professor at the School for Field Studies, Center for Wildlife Management, Kenya, for assistance accorded during fieldwork conducted for this study.
Notes
1. McCool and Moisey, “Introduction: Pathways and Pitfalls”; Zografos and Oglethorpe, “Multi-Criteria Analysis in Ecotourism.”
2. McCool and Moisey, “Introduction: Pathways and Pitfalls”; Zografos and Oglethorpe, “Multi-Criteria Analysis in Ecotourism”; Akama and Kieti, “Tourism and Socio-economic Development”; CitationSouthgate, “Ecotourism in Kenya.”
5. McCool and Moisey, “Introduction: Pathways and Pitfalls.”
9. Donohoe and Needham, “Ecotourism: Evolving Contemporary Definition.”
10. A few examples of current definitions of ecotourism (2007–2012) can be found in CitationHiggins-Desbiolles, “Indigenous Ecotourism's Role in Transforming Ecological Consciousness”; CitationYamada, “Why Tour Guiding is Important for Ecotourism”; and CitationWalter, “Theorizing Visitor Learning in Ecotourism.”
11. A few examples of current definitions of ecotourism (2007–2012) can be found in CitationHiggins-Desbiolles, “Indigenous Ecotourism's Role in Transforming Ecological Consciousness”; CitationDiamanatis, “Concept of Ecotourism.”
12. Manyara and Jones, “Community-based Tourism Enterprises,” p. 637.
13. CitationSindiga, “Alternative Tourism and Sustainable Development”; CitationAkama, “Evolution of Tourism in Kenya”; Akama and Kieti, “Tourism and Socio-economic Development”; CitationKibicho, “Community Tourism”; Manyara and Jones, “Community-based Tourism Enterprises”; CitationGadd, “Conservation Outside of Parks.”
14. CitationSindiga, “Alternative Tourism and Sustainable Development”; CitationAkama, “Evolution of Tourism in Kenya”; Akama and Kieti, “Tourism and Socio-economic Development”; CitationKibicho, “Community Tourism”; Manyara and Jones, “Community-based Tourism Enterprises”; CitationGadd, “Conservation Outside of Parks.”
15. CitationSindiga, “Alternative Tourism and Sustainable Development”; Akama and Kieti, “Tourism and Socio-economic Development.”
16. CitationHoney, “Community Conservation and Early Ecotourism.”
17. Akama and Kieti, “Tourism and Socio-economic Development”; CitationKibicho, “Community-based Tourism”; Meguro and Inoue, “Conservation Goals Betrayed.”
23. Akama and Kieti, “Tourism and Socio-economic Development.”
26. Akama and Kieti, “Tourism and Socio-economic Development.”
27. Cooke and Kothari, “Case for Participation as Tyranny”; Hickey and Mohan, “Towards Participation as Transformation”; CitationRahnema, “Participation.”
28. Hickey and Mohan, “Towards Participation as Transformation”; CitationRahnema, “Participation.”
29. Cooke and Kothari, “Case for Participation as Tyranny.”
31. CitationMosse, “‘People's Knowledge,’ Participation and Patronage.”
32. CitationMosse, “‘People's Knowledge,’ Participation and Patronage.”
34. CitationHenry, “Morality, Citizenship and Participatory Development.”
35. CitationBruyere et al., “Differences in Perception of Communication”; Massyn, “Citizen Participation in the Lodge Sector”; Mbaiwa, “Realities of Ecotourism Development”; CitationMashinya, “Participation and Devolution in Zimbabwe's CAMPFIRE”; CitationHoney, “Community Conservation and Early Ecotourism”; CitationAkama, “Evolution of Tourism in Kenya.”
36. Mutandwa and Godzirayi, “Impact of Community-based Approaches to Wildlife Management”; Balint and Mashinya, “CAMPFIRE During Zimbabwe's National Crisis.”
37. Massyn, “Citizen Participation in the Lodge Sector.”
38. Akama and Kieti, “Tourism and Socio-economic Development”; CitationSouthgate, “Ecotourism in Kenya.”
39. Backman and Nzuki, “Introduction to State of Tourism in Sub-Saharan Africa”; CitationOkech, “Ecotourism Development and Challenges.”
40. CitationOkello et al., “Opinions on Wildlife, Resource Use, and Livelihood Competition,” 2.
44. CitationRutten, Partnerships in Community-based Ecotourism Projects.
53. CitationSouthgate, “Ecotourism in Kenya.”; CitationRutten, Partnerships in Community-based Ecotourism Projects; Meguro and Inoue, “Conservation Goals Betrayed.”
54. CitationMburu et al., Transaction Costs in Collaborative Wildlife Management.
55. CitationMburu et al., Transaction Costs in Collaborative Wildlife Management.
57. Meguro and Inoue, “Conservation Goals Betrayed,” 35.
58. Meguro and Inoue, “Conservation Goals Betrayed,” 35.
59. CitationOkello et al., “Opinions on Wildlife, Resource Use, and Livelihood Competition.”
60. CitationOkello et al., “Opinions on Wildlife, Resource Use, and Livelihood Competition.”
65. CitationOkello et al., “Opinions on Wildlife, Resource Use, and Livelihood Competition,” 2.
66. E. Lemaiyo, personal communication, January 12, 2008.
67. Paul Nangoro is the first community member from Kimana to be involved in the earliest stages of conceptualizing the sanctuary. He was Ranch Chair in early 1990s when David Western took over as Director of Kenya Wildlife Services and introduced Community Wildlife Service, a concept to encourage “conservation for profit.” According to interviews with members, he had been a well-respected leader, well-travelled, educated and many indeed believed in his vision about the sanctuary's potential for income for Kimana community. For more commentary on Nangoro's role in the sanctuary, see McKinley, “Kimana Tikondo Group Ranch Journal”; and CitationHoney, Ecotourism and Sustainable Development, 321.
68. Samar, former ranch official, February 7, 2008.
69. J. Lekoo, personal communication, January 23, 2008.
70. P. Nailandey, personal communication, February 7, 2008.
71. V. Mepokuya, personal communication, January 17, 2008.
78. J. Sambili, personal communication, February 12, 2008.
79. J. Sambili, personal communication, February 14, 2008.
80. P. Lengula, personal communication, February 13, 2008.
81. V. Mepokuya, personal communication, February 15, 2007.
82. Meguro and Inoue, “Conservation Goals Betrayed.”
83. CitationGarrod, “Local Participation in the Planning and Management of Ecotourism.”
84. Meguro and Inoue, “Conservation Goals Betrayed.”
89. CitationFarrelly, “Indigenous and Democratic Decision-making”; CitationGarrod, “Local Participation in the Planning and Management of Ecotourism.”
90. CitationWood, Ecotourism: Principles, Practices and Policies, 1–32.
91. CitationMburu et al., Transaction Costs in Collaborative Wildlife Management.
93. Hickey and Mohan, “Towards Participation as Transformation”; Mohan and Hickey, “Relocating Participation”; CitationRahnema, “Participation.”
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