![Sample our Area Studies journals, sign in here to start your access, latest two full volumes FREE to you for 14 days]({"type":"image" , "src" : "/sda/5922/TOC-Subject-Sample-2021-Area-Studies.jpg"})
Abstract
Zanzibari social relations were long characterised by disruption and antagonism around election time, between followers of the incumbent Chama Cha Mapinduzi (CCM) and opposition party Civic United Front (CUF). In November 2009, with a top-level political meeting between the leaders of CUF and CCM, this started to change. Based on field interviews and observations, this article argues that Zanzibari politics – over the period from July 2009 to November 2010 – moved from a hostile and polarised political environment, via a limbo period, to a widely supported reconciliation process, and that over these three phases, intergroup relations changed. Using social identity theory, we argue that the shared Zanzibari identity increased in salience, and intergroup animosity decreased, a process likened to the social psychological dual recategorisation. Second, reasons for this change in intergroup relations are discussed, comparing this recent process to former failed peace processes, stressing shared goals, intergroup communalities, leadership dialogue and cooperation, and focus on the superordinate identity. The material demonstrates that elite-led political discourse can increase or decrease political tension and thus initiate social identity transformation. We argue that this process further created room for the peaceful 2010 elections and the establishment of the current Zanzibar Government of National Unity.
Notes
1. International Law and Policy Institute (ILPI), Comparing the Manifestos.
2. See for example Cameron, “Zanzibar's Turbulent Transition,” 313.
3. Tajfel and Turner, “Intergroup Conflict.”
4. Bakari and Makulilo, “Beyond Polarity in Zanzibar?”
5. Uki, Maridhiano; Nassor and Jose, “Power-sharing in Zanzibar.”
6. Matheson, “Maridhiano: Zanzibar's Remarkable Transition.”
7. September 2009–May 2010 and October–November 2010.
8. With notable exceptions like Arnold, “Placing the Shameless”; Cameron, “Zanzibar's Turbulent Transition,”; and Matheson, “Maridhiano: Zanzibar's Remarkable Transition.”
9. Bakari adds that people originating from Pemba, but residing in Pemba and Unguja are closer to 50 % “Understanding Obstacles,” 226–7.
10. Tajfel and Turner, “Intergroup Conflict.”
11. Tajfel, “Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations,” 24.
12. Dovidio et al., “Extending the Benefits of Recategorization,” 410.
13. Dovidio, “Intragroup Processes and Intergroup Relations,” 11.
14. Gaertner and Dovidio, Reducing Intergroup Bias, 48.
15. Gaertner and Dovidio, Reducing Intergroup Bias, 49.
16. Hornsey and Hogg, “Subgroup Relations,” 254.
17. See Gaertner and Dovidio, Reducing Intergroup Bias.
18. Dovidio et al., “Intergroup Bias,” 117.
19. Myers, “Narrative Representations of Revolutionary Zanzibar,” 444.
20. Brennan, Taifa, 1.
21. Glassman, War of Words, War of Stones, 22.
22. ILPI, Comparing the Manifestos.
23. EISA, Zanzibar, 2010 Presidential Election.
24. Matheson, “Maridhiano: Zanzibar's Remarkable Transition,” 594.
25. In the 2010 elections, CUF won 80.9 % of the vote on Pemba, whilst CCM won 69.3 % of the vote on Unguja (Zanzibar Electoral Commission, 2010 General Election).
26. Zanzibar Human Development Report, Towards Pro Poor Growth, 73.
27. Bakari, “Understanding Obstacles”, 252; Myers, “Democracy and Development,” 234; see also Mukangara, “Race, Ethnicity, Religion and Politics,” 46.
28. Cameron, “Zanzibar's Turbulent Transition,” 326.
29. Bakari, “Understanding Obstacles,” 227.
30. Myers, “Narrative Representations of Revolutionary Zanzibar,” 433.
31. Sheriff, “Race and Class,” 307–8.
32. Glassman, War of Words, 17.
33. Shivji, Pan-Africanism or Pragmatism?, 1.
34. Bakari, “Understanding Obstacles,” 227.
35. See Brennan, Taifa, 153.
36. See Lofchie, “Party Conflict in Zanzibar,” 204.
37. Myers, “Narrative Representations of Revolutionary Zanzibar,” 444.
38. Lofchie, “Party Conflict in Zanzibar,” 190.
39. Brown, “Political Tensions in Zanzibar,” 624.
40. Peter and Othman, Zanzibar and the Union Question.
41. Myers, “Narrative Representations of Revolutionary Zanzibar,” 435.
42. Tronvoll, Political Reconciliation and Elections in Zanzibar, 16.
43. See Myers, “Narrative Representations of Revolutionary Zanzibar,” 435, 439.
44. Commonwealth Secretariat, The Elections in Zanzibar.
45. Arnold, “Placing the Shameless,” 148.
46. Human Rights Watch, “Bullets Were Raining.”
47. Tronvoll, Political Reconciliation and Elections, 35.
48. EISA observers claimed the 2005 elections were relatively free and fair, but with room for significant improvement. EISA, Zanzibar Elections, 2005.
49. Jussa, “Of Referendum and CCM.”
50. The Citizen, Pinda Rejects Talk of Zanzibar Sovereignty.
51. See Daily News, Legislators Demand.
52. ILPI, Crunching the Numbers; see also TEMCO, Citation2010 Zanzibar Elections.
53. Ouwerkerk et al., “Inter-group Competition,” 1557.
54. Branscombe and Wann, “Outgroup Derogation,” 654.
55. EISA, Zanzibar, 2010 Presidential Election.
56. The Special Forces of the Revolutionary Government of Zanzibar consist of the JKU (national service), KMKM (Coastguard), KVZ (Volunteers), Prison Services and Firemen (see Oloka-Onyano and Nassali, Constitutionalism and Political Stability in Zanzibar).
57. ILPI, The First Round of Voter Registration.
58. For example, in Sizini (Pemba), CCM and CUF supporters lost their houses in fires; in Wete, two bombs targeted CCM officials (CUF claimed the bombs were CCM orchestrated); a CUF leader was beaten severely. On Unguja, there were also a number of incidents: from the burning of houses in northern Unguja, tit-for-tat beatings around Stone Town, to protests on the island of Tumbatu.
59. A week of violence in Ziwani, Pemba, directed at and committed by both CUF and CCM left two CUF leaders and the sheha's assistant (CCM) injured. One of the CUF leaders later died of his injuries.
60. ILPI, CUF at a Crossroads.
61. Interviewed 2013.
62. ILPI, CUF at a Crossroads.
63. ILPI, CUF at a Crossroads.
64. These were sworn on 20 January 2010. The President can appoint two special members of the House of Representatives from CUF, a result of the second Muafaka. The President had kept these seats vacant since CUF did not recognise his presidency (ILPI, Zanzibar's First Step towards Unity).
65. ILPI, The Zanzibar Referendum.
66. See discussion in Gaertner and Dovidio, Reducing Intergroup Bias, 161.
67. Burgess, Race, Revolution and the Struggle for Human Rights, 2.
68. Human Rights Watch, “Bullets Were Raining.”
69. Bakari, “Understanding Obstacles,” 233.
70. ILPI, 2010 Elections in Zanzibar.
71. ILPI, The Zanzibar Referendum.
72. Just prior to the referendum, Karume dismissed the CCM District Commissioner for the Central District (Unguja), allegedly due to his no-stand on the unity-government issue (Ibid.)
73. TEMCO, Referendum.
74. Zanzibar Electoral Commission, Zanzibar Referendum Results.
75. TEMCO, Special Issue, Zanzibar Referendum, 5–6.
76. Interviewed 2013.
77. For a discussion on sentiments on the union, see Tronvoll, “Bridging Divided Identities.”
78. In the preliminary constitutional draft issued by the Constitutional Commission in June 2013, oil and gas are placed under Zanzibari jurisdiction.
79. Anglin, “Political impasse,” 46.
80. Cameron, “Zanzibar's Turbulent Transition,” 315.
81. Tronvoll, Political Reconciliation and Elections in Zanzibar, 14.
82. Mpangala and Lwehabura, “Zanzibar. Conflict Resolution,” 91.
83. Bakari, “Understanding Obstacles,” 232.
84. Jussa, “Of Referendum and CCM.”
85. Bakari, “Understanding Obstacles,” 230.
86. Interviewed 2013.
87. ILPI, CUF at a Crossroads.
88. Haslam et al., The New Pyschology of Leadership, 137–64.
89. Myers, “Narrative Representations of Revolutionary Zanzibar,” 443.
90. Pettigrew, “Intergroup Contact Theory,” 75.
91. Dovidio et al., “Intergroup Bias,” 116.
92. Hannah et al., “Leadership in Extreme Contexts,” 908.
93. ILPI, 2010 Elections in Zanzibar.
94. Described as “remarkably peaceful” (EU, Preliminary Statement, General Elections).
95. ILPI, 2010 Elections in Zanzibar.
96. ILPI, 2010 Elections in Zanzibar.
97. ILPI, 2010 Elections in Zanzibar.
98. Interviewed: May 2012, February 2013
99. The Citizen, Zanzibar Vice-President Pushes for Isles’ Autonomy.
100. See for example Matheson, “Maridhiano: Zanzibar's Remarkable Rransition,” 608.
101. Also echoed in Bakari, “Understanding Obstacles,” 264.
102. See Gaertner & Dovidio, Reducing Intergroup Bias, 161.