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ABSTRACT
The political evolution of Kampala under the National Resistance Movement (NRM) has profoundly affected the fortunes of the city’s street vendors. This article examines the effects of institutional changes brought about by the NRM’s efforts to monopolize power in the city, arguing that the twin forces of democratization and decentralization allowed street vending to flourish while the reversal of these processes precipitated its dramatic decline. Democratization and decentralization initiated a period of intense political competition in which vendors could trade political support for protection from politicians who were more interested in political survival than the implementation of policy. This ability was lost when the central government introduced a new city government that shifted the balance of power from elected politicians to appointed technocrats. The new city government has since sought legitimacy through development and urban management initiatives that aim to transform Kampala into a supposedly modern, well-organized city. In doing so, it has sought to eradicate street vending, a practice it sees as the antithesis of and an obstacle to its ambitions. Lacking the channels for political influence that they previously enjoyed, street vendors have been forced to face the full brunt of government repression.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
Notes
1. These themes are explored to varying degrees in: Bromley, “Street Vending”; Crossa, “Resisting the Entrepreneurial City”; Mackie, Bromley, and Brown, “Informal Traders”; Morange, “Street Trade”; Setšabi and Leduka, “Politics of Street Trading”; and Yamto, “Street Vendors.”
2. The extent of the decline is based on the author's rough estimate made during the fieldwork undertaken for this study. For the number of street vendors before the ban, see Bwambale and Waiswa, “City Vendors.”
3. Mitullah, “Street Vending.” Also, see notes 4–8 below.
4. See, for example, Asiedu and Agyei-Mensah, “Traders on the Run”; Brown and Lyons, “Seen but Not Heard”; Musoni, “Operation Murambatsvina”; and Nduna, “The Struggles for Survival.”
5. See, for example, Hansen and Vaa, Reconsidering Informality and Lindell, Africa’s Informal Workers.
6. Skinner, “Getting Institutions Right?” and Skinner, “Struggle for the Streets.”
7. Riley, “Operation Dongosolo.” Also, see Kayuni and Tambulasi, “Political Transitions.”
8. Brown and Lyons, “Seen but Not Heard.”
9. “Constitution,” Chapter Eleven, Article 176, Section 2, Subsection (b).
10. “Local Governments Act.”
11. Carbone, No-Party Democracy?, 35; Rubongoya, Regime Hegemony, 60–9 and 104–12; Kasfir, “No-Party Democracy,” 53; and Muhumuza, “Fundamental Change,” 27.
12. Lambright, Decentralization in Uganda, 26–31; Tripp, Museveni's Uganda, 117–20; and “Hostile to Democracy,” 74–8.
13. See, for example, Goodfellow, and Titeca, “Presidential Intervention” and Lambright “Opposition Politics.”
14. Stelman, “Organisational Performance,” 7.
15. Goodfellow, “State Effectiveness,” 90.
16. Fisher, “Kampala Journal.”
17. “Kampala Welcomes Fraudster Ex-Mayor.”
18. Tamale, “Political Interference.”
19. See, for example, Businge, “Government Is Failing” and Byenkya, “Politics Failed KCC.”
20. Each of these issues was widely commented on in the national media throughout the KCC’s existence.
21. Quote by Daniel Muliika, former politician in Buganda Kingdom. Cited in Lambright “Opposition Politics,” 1.
22. “Trade (Licensing) Act,” 1969, Section 16. Quoted from Subsection 3, 3.
23. Ibid., Sections 16–19.
24. Mwanje, “Traders Return.”
25. Kigozi and Musoke, “Vendors to Go.”
26. “City Vendors Get Deadline,” New Vision, September 13, 2001.
27. Kamali, “KCC Battles Vendors Again” and Kamali, “Vendors Get Friday Deadline.”
28. Mitullah, “Street Vending,” 17.
29. See, for example, “5 Convicted”; “156 Vendors”; and “Vendor Jailed.”
30. “Local Governments,” Part IV.
31. Mwanje, “Town Clerk.”
32. Tendler, “Small Firms.”
33. Respondents expressed a widespread agreement on this fact, both in positive (by vendors themselves) and negative (by those opposed to street vending) terms. As explored below, opposition to street vending was notably expressed in the interview, KACITA representative, 11 July 2015. The phenomenon of selective enforcement due to political considerations is not unique to Kampala. See, most notably, Cross, Informal Politics.
34. Quoted in Byenkya, “Politics Failed KCC.”
35. Interview, Usafi Vendors Association Member, 10 July 2015.
36. Group interview, street vendors, 24 February 2015; group interview, Usafi Vendors Association, 18 July 2015; and interview, Usafi Vendors Association Member, 10 July 2015.
37. Group interview, Usafi Vendors Association, 18 July 2015.
38. Setšabi and Leduka. “Politics of Street Trading.”
39. Namutebi, “Enter KCC Affairs” and Namutebi, “Museveni Wants KCC Dissolved.”
40. Quoted from “Constitution,” Chapter Eleven, Article 202, Section 1.
41. Ibid., Chapter Eleven, Article 202, Section 3.
42. Ibid., Chapter Eleven, Article 202, Section 4.
43. “Constitution (Amendment) Act,” Article 2 and Article 28; and “Constitution (Amendment) (No.2) Act,” Article 2.
44. “Constitution of the Republic of Uganda: Amended by the Constitution (Amendment) Act,” Act 11/2005, Chapter Two, Article 5, Section 2.
45. Ibid., Chapter Two, Article 5, Sections 4 and 6.
46. “The Kampala Capital City Act,” 2010, Part III, Article 6.
47. Ibid., Part III, Article 11, Section 1.
48. Ibid., Part III, Article 17, Sections 1 and 2.
49. Ibid., Part III, Article 19.
50. Ibid., Part III, Article 19, Subsections (e) and (o).
51. Ibid., Part III, Article 9 and Part V, Article 23.
52. Ibid., Part IX, Article 72, Section 1, Subsection (a).
53. Ibid., Part XI, Article 79.
54. Ibid., Part III, Article 11, Section 2.
55. Mwanje, “No Justification” and Kato, “Some Leaders.”
56. Maseruka, “Kampala Mayor.”
57. Gyezaho, “Ugandans Don't Want Govt.”
58. Interview subjects unanimously claimed that the KCCA was introduced in order to allow the central government to regain control of the city from the opposition. This was perhaps most notably expressed in: interview, KACITA representative, 11 July 2015; interview, Member of Parliament, Parliament of Uganda, 27 July 2015; group interview, Usafi Vendors Association, 18 July 2015; interview, Erias Lukwago, 10 August 2015; and interview, Uganda National NGO Forum spokesperson, 17 August 2015.
59. Bareebe, “City Mayoral Seat” and Kagolo and Ogwang, “Lukwago Is Lord Mayor.”
60. See, for example, Mukisa, “KCCA Mayors, Councillors”; Nalugo, “Division Mayors Petition Parliament”; and Waiswa and Nantambi, “KCCA Should Change.”
61. Kiyonga, “How Museveni Plotted.”
62. Interview, Erias Lukwago, 10 August 2015.
63. Bamugemereire, Lakidi, and Okello, “KCCA Tribunal.”
64. Lubwama, “KCCA Councillors Get Cash.”
65. Masaba, “Teargas.”
66. Kato, “Some Leaders.”
67. Quoted in ROM Transportation Engineering Ltd. et al., “Kampala Physical Development Plan,” 6. Also, see “The Physical Planning Act.”
68. Email interview, KCCA spokesperson, 12 February 2016.
69. Interview, Uganda National NGO Forum spokesperson, 17 August 2015.
70. Kasozi and Namyalo, “Railway Evictions Case Adjourned.”
71. “Kampala Capital City Act,” Third Schedule, Part A, Article 3, Subsection (a).
72. Ibid., Part III, Article 19, Subsection (q).
73. Email interview, KCCA spokesperson, 11 November 2015.
74. Mwanje and Ssenkabirwa, “KCCA Bows.”
75. Bwambale and Waiswa, “City Vendors.”
76. Bwambale, “Govt Orders Vendors.”
77. Ssempogo, Waiswa, and Ssejoba, “Eviction of Vendors.”
78. These arguments were regularly put forth by interview respondents, and are commonly employed when street vending is discussed in the media.
79. Email interview, KCCA spokesperson, 11 November 2015.
80. See note 2 above. Interestingly, the only argument used in Kampala that is not identified in Bromley's comprehensive international overview from 2000 is the one relating to terrorism, pointing to a more common usage of security discourses and the impact this has had on the logic and rhetoric of development. See Bromley, “Street Vending.”
81. See note 38 above.
82. Interview, KACITA representative, 11 July 2015.
83. Mayanja, “Kampala Traders” and Mwanje and Ssenkabirwa, “KCCA Bows.”
84. “Kampala Businessmen Protest.”
85. Cross, “Street Vendors.”
86. Interview, Erias Lukwago, 10 August 2015.
87. Mwanje, “Councillors, Lukwago Disagree” and Waiswa and Asiimwe, “Lukwago Requests.”
88. Walubiri and Namutebi, “MPs Divided on Eviction.”
89. Bwambale and Mayanja. “Kampala Lord Mayor.”
90. “The Huge Task.”
91. Group interview, Usafi Vendors Association, 18 July 2015.
92. Ibid.
93. Ibid.
94. Group interview, Kampala Hawkers Association, 8 July 2015.
95. Kiggundu, “Lukwago Win.”
96. Kiggundu, “Great Job” and Kiyonga, “How Museveni Plotted.”
97. Busomoke, “KCCA Forces Vendors” and Ojiambo, “KACITA, KCCA.”