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ABSTRACT
The National Resistance Movement government in Uganda after three decades in power still appeals to the legacy of the liberation struggle to reaffirm and legitimize its control over the state. The Uganda People’s Defence Forces as the regime’s historical midwife play a critical role in these symbolic politics. Retaining institutions and practices of revolutionary politicization, the military serves in political, social and economic roles which blur the boundaries between the civilian and the military. In this way, the military conveys the moral and coercive authority of the post-revolutionary regime.
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No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes
1 See Kasozi, Social Origins of Violence, 164; Kategaya, Impassioned for Freedom; Kutesa, Uganda's Revolution, 97.
2 See Kibandama, “The security question”; Kagoro, “Military ethos”; ‘Army officers take over key state affairs', Daily Monitor, 7 July 2019.
3 Reuss and Titeca, “When revolutionaries grow old.”
4 Melber, “Southern African Liberation Movements.”
5 Salih, “African Liberation Movement Governments,” 682.
6 Clapham, “Liberation Movement,” 5; Kriger, “Patriotic memories”; Levitsky, “Competitive Authoritarianism,” 361.
7 Dorman, “Born Powerful,” 159; See also Levitsky and Way, “Beyond Patronage;” Clapham, “Liberation Movement,” 4; Kriger, “Patriotic memories”; Lyons, “Victorious rebels”; Close and Prevost, “From Revolutionary Movements to Political Parties,” 1.
8 Clapham, “Liberation Movement,” 6; Dorman, “Post-Liberation Politics,” 1092; Luckham, “Military, Militarisation and Democratisation,” 30; Lyons, “Victorious rebels”; Ottaway, Africa's New Leaders, 83.
9 Reuss and Titeca, “When revolutionaries grow old.”
10 Clapham, “Liberation Movement,” 4; Dorman, “Post-Liberation Politics,” 1088.
11 Clapham, “Liberation Movement,” 4; Deonandan, “Revolutionaries to Politicians,” 232; Dorman, “Born Powerful”; Kolkowicz, Soldiers, peasants and bureaucrats; Koonings and Kruijt, “Military Politics,” 19; Schraeder, African Politics and Society, 237.
12 Perlmutter and LeoGrande, “The Party in Uniform,” 778; Perlmutter, “Civil-Military Relations,” 324.
13 Dorman, “Born Powerful,” 159. Also see Decalo, Civil-Military Relations in Africa, 11, 190; Deonandan, “Revolutionaries to Politicians”; Koonings and Kruijt, “Military Politics,” 19; N'Diaye, The Challenge of Institutionalizing Civilian Control, 64; Shaw, Post-Military Society, 96; Skjelsbaek, “Militarism,” 217.
14 Koonings and Kruijt, “Epilogue,” 337–8; Tadesse, “Overcoming Challenges for Security Sector Reform.”
15 Perlmutter and LeoGrande, “Party in Uniform,” 778. See also Rupiya, Evolutions, Revolutions.
16 See for example Luckham, “Radical Soldiers,” 241.
17 Lyons, “From Victorious Rebels to Strong Authoritarian Parties;” Weinstein, Inside Rebellion. See Clapham, “Liberation Movement”; Lyons, “Victorious rebels”; Melber, “Southern African Liberation Movements.”
18 Mulugeta, “Ethiopian post-transition security sector reform.”
19 Jowell, “Cohesion,” 282; Purdeková, Reyntjens and Wilén, “Militarisation of governance after conflict.”
20 Museveni, What is Africa’s problem?, 27.
21 See Gibson, African Liberation Movements; Museveni, What is Africa’s problem?, 136–7; Young, “Sudan. Incomplete Transition,”158.
22 Apart from the native Baganda, the area also featured sizable populations of Alur, non-Bantus with a said affiliation to the Obote regime, and Banyarwanda refugees who were ethnically close to the NRA’s Banyankole leadership.
23 Kutesa, Uganda's Revolution, 124; Weinstein, Inside Rebellion, 196–7.
24 Museveni, Mission to Freedom – Uganda Resistance News 1981 – 1985, as quoted in Kasozi, Social Origins of Violence, 150–1.
25 Kategaya, Impassioned for Freedom, 91, 96; Museveni in Uganda Resistance News, no date, as quoted in Kasozi, Social Origins of Violence, 165.
26 Katumba-Wamala, “The National Resistance Army,” 165.
27 Museveni address on March 11, 1985, from NRA HQ to NRM members, as quoted in Museveni, What is Africa’s problem?, 142; see also Kabwegyere, People's choice, people's power, 105; Interview with UPDF Chief Political Commissar, September 13, 2015; Katumba-Wamala, “The National Resistance Army,” 165f.
28 Public address, 5th NRM administration anniversary, January 1991, as reproduced in Museveni, What is Africa’s problem?, 96.
29 Ibid.
30 Mudoola, “Institution-building: The case of the NRM,” 241.
31 Amaza, Museveni’s long march, xx; Kabwegyere, People's choice, people's power, 44; Oloka-Onyango, “New Wine or Old Bottles?,” 45.
32 Interview with ruling party MP, 10 October 2010: ‘If you didn’t have a military tag, we called you stupid.’
33 Amaza, Museveni's long march, 218.
34 Tumushabe, “Ugandan taxpayers' burden”; ‘In the national interest, we soldiers who face bullets are asking you, MPs, to sacrifice a bit as well and face the ballots; they do not kill, after all … ', then army commander Major General Mugisha Muntu, in 1993 as quoted in ‘Gen. Muntu: It’s we soldiers who die when parliament blunders', The Observer, 8 January 2018; Interview with member of the Buganda kingdom’s cabinet, Kampala, 30 April 2019.
35 Mudoola, “Institution-building. The case of the NRM,” 241.
36 Museveni, “What is a fundamental change?,” 1991, as reproduced in Museveni, Museveni, What is Africa’s problem?.
37 ‘RDC clarifies on Chaka-Mchaka', New Vision, 1 May 2002.
38 Kasozi, Social Origins of Violence, 205.
39 Public address, 5th NRM administration anniversary, January 1991, as quoted in Museveni, What is Africa’s problem?, 96.
40 The first political school for civilians was set up in 1986 in Mugusu, Kabarole.It later shifted to Namugongo and Wakiso district before settling in Kyankwanzi. See Kategaya, “Impassioned for freedom,” 110–1; Mudoola, “Institution-building. The case of the NRM,” 241; Museveni, What is Africa’s problem?, 97.
41 ‘Only patriots, revolutionaries can build an army like UPDF', Daily Monitor, 9 May 2012.
42 Amaza, Museveni's long march, 122, 149.
43 Amaza, Museveni's long march, 51; Kanyeihamba, “Constitutional and Political History of Uganda,” 237; Kabwegyere, “Peope’s choice, people’s power,” 41; Pirouet, “Human rights issues in Museveni's Uganda,” 199–200; Mudoola, “Institution-building. The case of the NRM,” 238; New Vision, 19 October 1993 as cited in Kabwegyere, “Peope’s choice, people’s power,” 69.
44 Constitution of Uganda 1995, Art. 208.
45 Ibid., Art. 209.
46 Mudoola, “Communal Conflict in the Military,” 133.
47 Museveni, What is Africa’s problem?, 79.
48 ‘Do we still need special interest MPs?', Daily Monitor, 6 March 2016. Parliament is to determine the number of representatives of each of the five groups. Constitution of Uganda 1995, Art. 78.
49 Museveni, Letter to the Movement Caucus in Parliament. PO/30, 14th Dec 1999; as quoted in Kanyeihamba, Constitutional and Political History of Uganda, 244.
50 Amaza, Museveni's long march, 218.
51 Ibid., 243.
52 ‘Why UPDF sit on gov’t side in parliament', New Vision, 4 April 2017.
53 ‘Katumba, Angina elected army MPs', New Vision, 10 March 2011.
54 ‘Katumba tops army polls', New Vision, 10 April 2011.
55 ‘The officers in the 10th Parliament', New Vision, 7 March 2016.
56 Anecdotal evidence suggests that, contrary to regulations, army MPs and serving officers in government positions receive their army pay alongside additional appointments’ salary.
57 Interview with UPDF senior officer, Kampala, 20 January 2016.
58 Army MPs also sit and vote on parliamentary committees, including the defence and security committee. ‘Army MP saved over 20 bills', The Observer, 19 February 2012. ‘Scrap special interest seats in parliament', Daily Monitor, 5 February 2015; Interview with UPDF Spokesperson, 8 December 2008; Williams, “Mapping a New African Civil-Military Relations Architecture,” 278.
59 ‘Are army MPs still relevant today', Daily Monitor, 19 September 2013.
60 Ibid; Kanyeihamba, “Constitutional and Political History of Uganda,” 243; ‘Kick army out of parliament, demands petitioner', The Observer, 6 June 2011.
61 ‘Army MPs retained after hot debate', Daily Monitor, 11 November 2010.
62 ‘Are army MPs still relevant today?', Daily Monitor, 19September 2013.
63 ‘Museveni tells MPs: Army can take over', Daily Monitor, 18 January 2013.
64 ‘Is military coup Museveni’s last line of defence?', The East African, 26 January 2013.
65 ‘Army MPs speak out on age limit', The Observer, 12 September 2017.
66 ‘Army MPs support lifting of age limit, says Gen. Tumwine', Daily Monitor, 20 December 2017.
67 ‘Army MPs speak out on age limit', The Observer, 12 September 2017.
68 ‘Anite’s resolve on age limit: We have the army', New Vision, 15 September 2017.
69 He was eventually sentenced to a severe warning after found guilty of misconduct, and later promoted to Lieutnant General, retired and appointed security minister. ‘Brig. Tumukunde sentenced to serious warning', Daily Monitor, 18 April 2013; ‘Brigadier Tumkunde promoted then retired', Daily Monitor, 1September 2016; ‘What Tumukunde said in 2005', The Observer, 18 January 2013; ‘General Court Martial: Brig Tumukunde has case to answer', Uganda Radio Network, 21 November 2012.
70 ‘Political education is the food of ideology – M7 tells the army', Red Pepper, 29 January 2015.
71 UPDF Act 2005, Art. 6 (1).
72 Interview UPDF Chief Political Commissar, 13 September 2015.
73 See syllabus of basic cadre development course at Oliver Tambo School of Leadership, Kaweweta, as reproduced in Tarehe Sita 27 (9) December 2014, 24; See also Labour Day Issue, May 2016, 45; UPDF Act 2005.
74 Interview with UPDF senior officer, Kampala, 26 January 2016; UPDF senior officer, Jinja, 5 June 2018. No political education modules are taught at Senior Command and Staff College.
75 Interview with UPDF senior officer, Kampala, 26 January 2016.
76 Email from CPC, August 2015. A module on humanitarian law and child protection was added in 2013 but most training for UPDF on humanitarian law and civilian protection is being provided by donors, NGOs and UN agencies. ‘UPDF to integrate humanitarian law in its syllabus', The Observer, 12 May 2013.
77 Interview with UPDF officer, Jinja, 25 May 2016.
78 Special Forces Command, 15 December 2017, www.specialforcescommand.go.ug (accessed 5 August 2018)
79 Interview with UPDF Chief Political Commissar, Kampala, May 2015.
80 Constitution of Uganda 1995, Art. 17 (2).
81 Amaza, Museveni's long march, 218.
82 The syllabus at the National Leadership Institute in Kyankwanzi teaches ‘1) Knowledge of Human Thinking and Social dynamics. 2) Uganda’s Geography and Natural Resources. 3) Uganda’s History, 4) Leadership, Discipline and Governance 5) Geo-Politics and National Security 6) Personal Empowerment. 7) Kiswahili, 8) basic military skills including parade drills and Skill-at-Arms.' as featured in Tarehe Sita, Heroes’ Day Issue 2016, 25.
83 Training of public servants has been pre-eminent at lower levels of administration, such as the district and sub-county and are locally conducted by the UPDF and RDCs on public premises. See Nsibambi, “Resistance councils and committees,” 284; HRW, “Hostile to Democracy”; See also Kategaya, “Impassioned for freedom,” 110–1; Omara-Otunnu, Politics and the military, 180.
84 HRW, “World Report,” 83.
85 ‘Give military training to all Ugandans, Bishop tells government', Daily Monitor, 22 April 2015; ‘Rwenzururu King joins Kasese youth in chaka mchaka', Uganda Radio Network, 1 December 2012.
86 National Patriotism Corp Uganda, https://npcu.wordpress.com/ (accessed 6 August 2018)
87 ‘RDC clarifies on Chaka-Mchaka', New Vision, 1 May 2002. Plans to train all school leavers have been tabled, most recently in the form of a National Youth Service in 2016, but never pursued in earnest. ‘Military service for all Ugandans', BBC News, 20 July 2007. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6907950.stm (accessed 15 May 2018); Nsibambi, “Resistance councils and committees,” 284; HRW, “Hostile to Democracy”; ‘Al-Shabab already defeated', New Vision, 27 April 2015.
88 ‘Mrs. Museveni upset over chaka mchaka suspension', New Vision, 17 August 2009; US Department of State (2014): ‘Human Rights report Uganda 2014', In Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2014 United States Department of State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor, 13. http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/236630.pdf (accessed 6 August 2018)
89 ‘Chiefs shocked by training', Daily Monitor, 21 March 2007.
90 Muhumuza, “Fading support?,” 166.
91 ‘Museveni directs police to arm civilians', Uganda Radio Network, 25 May 2015.
92 ‘RDC clarifies on Chaka-Mchaka', New Vision, 1 May 2002; ‘Kabale FDC plans to teach at a Mchaka—mchaka course', Uganda Radio Network, 6 June 2007; ‘Cadre kicked out of Chaka-Mchaka for opposing 3rd Museveni term', Daily Monitor, 17 December 2002.
93 ‘Crime preventers cause stir ahead of Uganda elections', The East African, 16 January 2016.
94 New Vision, 24 June 1986, as quoted in Mudoola, “Institution-building. The case of the NRM,” 240.
95 NEC was to ‘train, organize and utilize army personnel to develop and carry out scientific, technological, industrial construction and contracted service activities on a commercial basis.' New Vision, 13 October 1988, as quoted in Mudoola, “Institution-building. The case of the NRM,” 241.
96 Public address, 5th NRM administration anniversary, January 1991, as quoted in Museveni, What is Africa’s problem?, 96.
97 See for example, ‘Canon Jacqueline Mbabazi', The Observer, 6 August 2009. Interview with local journalist, 28 October 2013.
98 ‘UPDF shines in South Sudan', The Independent, 29 June 2014.
99 Parliamentary Defence Committee report, September 2014 as cited in: ‘Museveni under Fire over Army', The Independent, 6 October 2014.
100 A range of top senior officers or select lower ranking officers have accumulated considerable wealth, regarded with scepticism by the public. See for example ‘Generals' wealth exposed’, Saturday Pepper, 5 May 2012.
101 Public address, 5th NRM administration anniversary, January 1991, as quoted in Museveni, What is Africa’s problem?, 96.
102 Mudoola, “Institution-building. The case of the NRM,” 241.
103 Defence minister Kiyonga as quoted in debate over UPDF budget in Hansard, Parliament of Uganda, 5 September 2002.
104 ‘Operation Wealth Creation is progressing – President Museveni', Uganda Media Centre, 3 November 2016
105 ‘Miss Uganda beauty pageant joins agriculture drive', New Vision, 22 August 2014.
106 ‘MPs query OWC, NAADS officials over fake seeds', Daily Monitor, 2 March 2017. Interviews with subsistence and small holder farmers, various locations, February – June 2017.
107 Interview with foreign military diplomat, Kampala, 17 October 2015.
108 Interview with UPDF Chief Political Commissar, Kampala, 2015.
109 See ‘Army most trusted public institution', Daily Monitor, 5 June 2010.