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ABSTRACT
This article explores the impact of the reintroduction of multiparty politics at the University of Nairobi in the late-1990s. It argues that the reinstatement of Nairobi’s student union (SONU) in 1998 represented a fundamental turning point in the history of student activism in Kenya. SONU’s return served to open space on campus for national political parties, particularly the ruling party, the Kenya African National Union (KANU), to play a greater role in student politics than they ever had before. The growing influence of these external actors and the support that they provided to candidates vying for SONU positions fundamentally altered the nature and practice of student politics at Nairobi in several important ways: exacerbating internal divisions within the student leadership along party and ethnic lines; contributing to the commercialization of student politics to an unprecedented degree; and driving a spike in intra-student violence through the creation of externally supported “goon squads.” In documenting this history, this article challenges the conventional historical periodization of student politics at African universities in the 1990s and 2000s, which has tended to exclusively understand student activists as key actors in protesting against Structural Adjustment Policies and in promoting processes of democratization.
Acknowledgements
I want to thank everyone in Kenya who helped me with this project. With special thanks to my co-editors, Wangui Kimari and Jacob Rasmussen; my research assistants, Mwongela Kamencu, Sara Cordoba and Maria Gabriela Castaneda; and Kate Korycki, Noaman Ali, Maria Fernanda Moreno, David M. Anderson, Courtney Jung and Dickson Eyoh for their insightful feedback.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s ).
Notes
1 Melchiorre, “Creating a ‘Monster’”; Klopp and Orina, “University Crisis, Student Activism”; Amutabi “Crisis and Student Protest”; Chege “The Politics of Education”; Balsvik, “Student Activism and the State.”
2 Melchiorre, “Creating a ‘Monster’,” S84; Balsvik, “Student Activism and the State in Africa,” 305.
3 In spite of the threatening note, Muruli was reported to have identified one of the police officers just over a week before his death. Daily Nation, “Varsities Close as Students Riot.” February 25, 1997, 3; Daily Nation, “Fury Over Bizarre Death.” February 25, 1997, 4; S. Muiruri, “At Student’s Killing.” Daily Nation, February 25, 1997, 3.
4 Daily Nation, “Varsities Close as Students Riot.” February 25, 1997, 1.
5 Daily Nation, “Poly Shut Students Riot.” July 15, 1997, 1.
6 Daily Nation, “10 Die in Clashes.” July 8, 1997, 1; Daily Nation, “Riots Toll Up as Students Die.” July 9, 1997, 1.
7 Daily Nation, “Defiant Students Riot Again.” July 16, 1997, 1–2.
8 Daily Nation, “Universities Shut Over Riots.” July 10, 1997, 1; Daily Nation, “Two Slain Students Buried.” July 21, 1997, 5.
9 Daily Nation, “Defiant Students Riot Again.” July 16, 1997, 1–2.
10 Daily Nation, “Students, Police Battle.” March 5, 1998, 1; Daily Nation, “Degree Racket Causes Riot.” March 9, 1998, 5.
11 Ibid.
12 S. Muiruri, “Student Reps Say Sorry, Want Varsity Re-Opened.” Daily Nation, March 28, 1998, 2.
13 SONU was banned in November 1987, and briefly reintroduced and then banned again in early 1992.
14 Daily Nation, “Sonu Elections.” July 3, 1998, 4.
15 Wahome Mutahi, “Nyache, Mwau row on graft,” Daily Nation, July 30, 1998, 23.
16 Hodgkinson, “Remaking Political Studenthood.”
17 Federici and Caffentzis, “Chronology of African Students’ Struggles,” 115–6.
18 Federici, “The New African Student Movement,” 62; Klopp and Orina, “University Crisis, Student Activism,” 45.
19 Zeilig and Dawson, “Introduction,” 1.
20 Klopp and Orina, “University Crisis, Student Activism,” 45.
21 Ibid.
22 Luesher-Mamshela and Mugume, “Student Representation: Multiparty Politics,” 500.
23 Mwangola, “Leaders of Tomorrow?,” 151–152.
24 Amutabi, “Crisis and Student Protests,” 159.
25 Ritchie, Doing Oral History, 11.
26 Yeasmin and Rahman, “Triangulation,” 156.
27 Melchiorre, “Under the Thumb”; Ade Ajayi et al, The African Experience, 117.
28 Hodgkinson and Melchiorre “Introduction,” S4.
29 Mamdani, Define and Rule, 86.
30 Interview, Wanyiri Kihoro, Nairobi, 17 July 2014.
31 Interview, Edward Oyugi, Nairobi, 9 June 2014; Interview, Peter Anyang Nyong’o, Nairobi, 10 June 2014.
32 Interview, Josiah Omotto, Nairobi, 21 July 2014; Interview, Karanja Njoroge, Nairobi, 24 July 2014.
33 Interview, Willy Mutunga, Nairobi, Kenya, 8 July 2014; Interview, Odour Ong’wen, Nairobi, Kenya, 26 May 2014; Interview, Godfrey Muriuki, Nairobi, 23 July 2014.
34 Melchiorre, “Creating a ‘Monster’,” S71.
35 Interview, George Outa, Nairobi, 5 June 2014; Paddy Onyango, Nairobi, 20 June 2014; Interview, Wahinya Boore, Nairobi, 20 May 2014; Interview, Onyango Oloo, 11 July 2014.
36 Atieno-Odhiambo, “Hegemonic Enterprises,” 171–2; Kihoro, “The Price of Freedom.”
37 Melchiorre, “Creating a ‘Monster’,” S84.
38 Eyoh, “Contesting Local Citizenship,” 103.
39 Konings, “University Students’ Revolt,” 181.
40 Omanga and Buigutt, “Marx in Campus,” 584; Brown, “Theorising Kenya’s Protracted Transition,” 326–7.
41 Adar, “Assessing Democratisation Trends Kenya,” 104; Lynch, I Say to You, 146.
42 Elischer, Political Parties in Africa, 50–51.
43 Gathoni Gecaga, “Religious Movements and Democratization,” 77; Ndegwa, “Citizenship and Ethnicity,” 612.
44 Ndegwa, “Kenya: Third Time Lucky?” 148.
45 Omolo, “Political Ethnicity,” 217; Elischer, Political Parties in Africa, 67.
46 Interview, George Omondi, Nairobi, 1 July 2014.
47 Kiai, Haven of Repression, 6; Oanda, “The Evolving Nature of Student Participation,” 72.
48 Phone Interview, Kepta Ombati, 27 February 2019.
49 Kiai, Haven of Repression, 6; Oanda, “The Evolving Nature of Student Participation,” 73.
50 The Anvil, “Student Body is Dissolved.” November 24, 1990, 1.
51 Ibid.
52 Phone Interview, Richard Tsalwa, 1 August 2018.
53 Ajulu, “Politicized Ethnicity”; Interview, Suba Churchill, Nairobi, 12 June 2014.
54 Interview, Kepta Ombati, 27 February 2019.
55 Kiai, “Haven of Repression,” 6.
56 Phone Interview, Kepta Ombati, 27 February 2019; Interview, George Morara, 30 June 2014; Klopp and Orina, “University Crisis, Student Activism,” 56.
57 Phone Interview, Richard Tsalwa, 1 August 2018.
58 Phone Interview, Kepta Ombati, 27 February 2019; Kiai, “Haven of Repression,” 6; Interview, Moses Oburu, Nairobi, 22 July 2014.
59 Phone Interview, Richard Tsalwa, 1 August 2018.
60 Phone Interview, Nduko o'Matigere, 31 July 2018.
61 Kiai, “Haven of Repression,” 6.
62 Ibid, 7.
63 Interview, Colin Leys, Toronto, 5 October 2017.
64 Interview, Karanja Njoroge, Nairobi, 24 July 2014.
65 Interview, Willy Mutunga, Nairobi, 8 July 2014.
66 Rumba Kinuthia, Nairobi, 13 June 2014; Interview with Mwandawiro Mghanga, Nairobi, 19 May 2014; Interview with Wafula Buke, Nairobi, 25 July 2014.
67 Weekly Review, “A Predictable Pattern.” 17 November 1987, 17.
68 Interview, Mwandawiro Mghanga, Nairobi, 19 May 2014.
69 Phone Interview, Nduko o'Matigere, 31 July 2018.
70 Hellaine Anyango, “Ethnicity Rife at Campus.” The Anvil, Vol. 22, no. 164, June 20, 1997, 1.
71 Interview, George Morara, Nairobi, 30 June 2014.
72 Klopp and Orina, “University Crisis, Student Activism,” 54.
73 Daily Nation, “Lift Expulsions, the University.” February 24, 1998, 2.
74 Daily Nation, “Degree Racket Causes Riot.” March 9, 1998, 5.
75 Daily Nation, “SONU Threat.” March 11, 1998, 4.
76 Daily Nation, “Student’s Fear.” September 5, 1997, 20.
77 Interview, Joseph Kioko, Nairobi, 10 July 2014.
78 It is important to note that the emergence of Youth for KANU ’92 (YK ’92) on campus around the time of Kenya’s 1992 election did temporally introduce some of these features to university politics. Interview, Chris Wanjala, Nairobi, 9 July 2014; Interview, Ken Ouko, Nairobi, 11 July 2014; Interview, George Gona, Nairobi, 1 July 2014.
79 Phone Interview, Nduko o'Matigere, 31 July 2018.
80 Interview, student leader, anonymised, 2018.
81 Omolo, “Political Ethnicity,” 217–8.
82 Justus Wanga, “Exit Nairobi’s Hard Man.” Daily Nation, January 20, 2013.
83 Interview, student leader, anonymised, 2018; Interview, student leader, anonymised, 2018; Interview, faculty member, anonymised, 2018.
84 Interview, Moses Oburu, Nairobi, Kenya, 25 June 2014. Oburu asserts that the reinstatement of SONU was largely a by-product of a meeting that he had with Hilary Clinton in Uganda in “early [19]98 or [19]97.” The Clintons did visit Uganda in late March of 1998. Oburu claims to have met Mrs Clinton at a meeting they were both invited to by the University of Makerere’s Student Guild. At this meeting, Oburu says he gave Mrs. Clinton a “memo … detailing the historical injustices meted out to students [in Kenya].” Oburu suggests that Mrs Clinton shared this memo with her husband and that subsequently a concerned President Clinton “had a session with Moi about it.” In Oburu’s retelling the pressure applied by President Clinton on Moi played a major role in SONU’s reinstatement [Interview, Moses Oburu, Nairobi, 17 June 2014]. Ugandan newspaper reports confirm that Oburu was visiting Kampala in March 1998 and that he met with Makerere student leaders in Kampala during the time of Clinton’s visit [Julius Mucunguzi, “Nairobi University Guild Boss in K'la for ‘Asylum’.” Daily Monitor, March 26, 1998, 6]. But I was unable to find any corroborating evidence, either through interviews or archives, to confirm that a meeting between Clinton and Oburu took place or that such a meeting impacted SONU’s reinstatement.
85 Interview, Moses Oburu, Nairobi, 17 June 2014.
86 Phone Interview, Moses Sande, 10 August 2018.
87 Phone Interview, Richard Tsalwa, 1 August 2018.
88 Ibid.
89 Phone Interview, Chris Budo, 1 August 2018.
90 Interview, Cyprian Nyamwamu, Nairobi, 24 July 2014.
91 Phone Interview, Chris Budo, 1 August 2018.
92 Phone Interview, Nduko o'Matigere, 31 July 2018.
93 Interview, student leader, anonymised, 2018.
94 Interview, Cyprian Nyamwamu, Nairobi, 24 July 2014.
95 Phone Interview, Nduko o'Matigere, 31 July 2018.
96 Phone Interview, Moses Sande, 10 August 2018.
97 Ibid.
98 Phone Interview, Richard Tsalwa, 1 August, 2018.
99 Daily Nation, “Sonu Leaders Elected.” July 12, 1998, 4.
100 It is important to note that in our two interviews, Oburu vehemently denied that he had been secretly coopted by KANU. Indeed, he claims “[i]f [he] had wanted to do KANU politics [he] would have painted that University red”, but that ultimately “that was not [his] interest.” Interview, Joseph Kioko, Nairobi, 10 July 2014; Phone Interview, Chris Budo, 1 August 2018. Interviews, Moses Oburu, Nairobi, Kenya, 17 June and 22 July 2014.
101 Interview, Joseph Kioko, Nairobi, 10 July 2014.
102 Daily Nation, “Students ‘Are Paid to Cause Trouble’.” March 4, 1999, 18.
103 Phone Interview, Kepta Ombati, 27 February 2019.
104 Hornsby, Kenya, 66.
105 Muraguri and Thuku, “Students: We’ll March on Forest.” Daily Nation, January 30, 1999, 1.
106 Daily Nation, “Students Defy Summons.” February 23, 1999, 4.
107 Daily Nation, “Row Linked to Moi Succession.” February 3, 1999, 48.
108 Daily Nation. “Students ‘Are Paid to Cause Trouble’.” March 4, 1999, 18.
109 Interview, Cyprian Nyamwamu, Nairobi, 24 July 2014.
110 Interview, Kingwa Kamencu, Nairobi, 26 June 2014; Interview, George Omondi, Nairobi, 1 July 2014; Interview, Moses Oburu, Nairobi, 22 July 2014; Interview, Joseph Kioko, Nairobi, 10 July 2014.
111 Interview, Joseph Kioko, Nairobi, 10 July 2014.
112 Oanda, “The Evolving Nature of Student Participation in University Governance in Africa,” 77.
113 Interview, Joseph Kioko, Nairobi, 10 July 2014.
114 Anderson, “Vigilantes, Violence”; Mwagola, “Leaders of Tomorrow,” 148; Kagwanja, “Power to Uhuru.”
115 Gechaga, “Religious,” 79–80.
116 Federici, “The New Student Movement,” 97.
117 Phone Interview, Kepta Ombati, 27 February 2019.
118 Interview, George Omondi, Nairobi, 1 July 2014.
119 Interview, student leader, anonymised, 2014; Interview, student leader, anonymised, 2018; Interview, student leader, anonymised, 2018; Interview, student leader, anonymised, 2018; Interview, student leader, anonymised, 2014; 2018; Interview, student leader, anonymised, 2014; Interview, student leader, anonymised, 2014.
120 Interview, student leader, anonymised, 2014.
121 Anderson, “Vigilantes, Violence,” 549–51; Mwangola, “Leaders of Tomorrow,” 148.
122 W. Thuku, “Students Whip Colleagues.” Daily Nation, March 7, 1999, 32
123 Interview, student leader, anonymised, 2014.
124 W. Thuku, “Students Whip Colleagues.” Daily Nation, March 7, 1999, 32.
125 Ibid.
126 In an election that his opponent, Owiro, claimed was rigged. See Daily Nation, “Students Seek VC’s Assistance in Poll.” June 29, 1999, 5; Daily Nation, “Varsity Gets New Student Leaders.” June 30, 1999, 4.
127 Daily Nation, “Students Fight Campus.” July 10, 1999, 16.
128 Justus Wanga, “Exit Nairobi Hardman Gumo.” Daily Nation, January 20, 2013.
129 Daily Nation, “Students Fight Campus.” July 10, 1999, 16.
130 Justus Wanga, “Exit Nairobi Hardman Gumo.” Daily Nation, January 20, 2013.
131 Ibid.
132 Phone Interview, Kepta Ombati, 27 February 2019; Mwangola, “Leaders of Tomorrow,” 151–2.
133 Phone Interview, Chris Budo, 1 August 2018.