https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9135-2786
![Sample our Area Studies journals, sign in here to start your access, latest two full volumes FREE to you for 14 days]({"type":"image" , "src" : "/sda/5922/TOC-Subject-Sample-2021-Area-Studies.jpg"})
ABSTRACT
The Ethiopian military intervention to remove the Union of Islamic Courts from Mogadishu in December 2006 has been interpreted in overlapping narratives of historical-religious conflict between Ethiopia and Somalia, proxy war with Eritrea, and counter-terrorism. This article adds another: the Ethiopian government's own dominant narrative of danger at the time. Based on a discourse analysis of materials generated during a year of fieldwork in Addis Ababa, the article explores how Ethiopia's political leadership constructed developments in Somalia as an existential threat to the Ethiopian state. It argues that the language and actions of specific actors were presented as threatening the idea of the post-1991 Ethiopian state and, more specifically, the foundational narrative with which the EPRDF-led Ethiopian government sought ontological security for Ethiopia as a distinct political community and international actor. By focusing on the relationship between processes of collective identity formation and perceptions of (in)security, this article highlights the role of state identity narratives for understanding evolving threat perceptions and their political implications in the Horn of Africa.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank the Institute of Ethiopian Studies at Addis Ababa University, and the Ethiopian Foreign Relations Strategic Studies Institute in Addis Ababa, for hosting me while I conducted the fieldwork for this study. I also thank my interviewees and colleagues in Ethiopia for sharing their insights and granting me access to documentation. I am grateful to the late Ian Taylor, Faye Donnelly, Solomon Hassen and Salome Minesashvili for commenting on previous versions of this work, and to the anonymous reviewers and the editors of this journal for their helpful and detailed feedback. The research presented in this article was conducted as part of my PhD studies at the University of St Andrews, and completed during a DAAD PRIME fellowship at Leipzig University (project ID 57507216).
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes
1 The Ethiopian Peoples’ Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) was formed in 1989 and was a coalition of four parties, from four central regions of Ethiopia. As a political party, the Tigray People's Liberation Front (TPLF) dominated the EPRDF-led government until April 2018, when Abiy Ahmed became Ethiopia's new Prime Minister. The incumbent government replaced the EPRDF with the Prosperity Party in November 2019.
2 Kinnvall and Mitzen, “Ontological Securities,” 4.
3 Steele, Ontological Security, 2–3; Berenskoetter, “National Biography,” 279.
4 Steele, Ontological Security, 3.
5 FDRE. Transitional Period Charter of Ethiopia. Peaceful and Democratic Transitional Conference of Ethiopia, July 22, 1991. Addis Ababa: Negarit Gazeta. Accessed May 4, 2020. https://chilot.files.wordpress.com/2011/11/the-transitional-period-charter-of-ethiopia.pdf; FDRE. Constitution of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. Addis Ababa: Federal Negarit Gazeta, 1995. Accessed May 4, 2020. http://www.wipo.int/edocs/lexdocs/laws/en/et/et007en.pdf; Bach, “Compromising with Ethiopianness,” 95–6.
6 Fiseha, “Theory versus Practice,” 131.
7 Menkhaus, “Governance Without Government,” 80–1.
8 Tadesse, Political Islam, 157–8; Hoehne, “Counter-Terrorism,” 3.
9 Bryden, “Building Block Approach,” 134.
10 Barnes and Hassan, “The Rise,” 154–5; Elmi, “Understanding the Somalia Conflagration,” 95. For a discussion of the UIC's expansion to southern Somalia see Skjelderup, Ainashe, and Abdulle, “Militant Islamism.”
11 Human Rights Watch, So Much to Fear, 4.
12 Hansen, Al-Shabaab, 49–50.
13 Barnes and Hassan, “The Rise,” 151; Menkhaus, “Governance Without Government,” 88.
14 See Williams, Fighting for Peace.
15 Erlich, “Grandchildren of Abraha,” 121–6.
16 Solomon, “Somalia's Al Shabaab,” 352.
17 Yihun, “Ethiopian Foreign Policy,” 677–80; Tadesse, Political Islam, 157–9; Solomon, “Somalia's Al Shabaab,” 353–4.
18 Barnes and Hassan, “The Rise,” 155; Clapham, “Post-War Ethiopia,” 190; Elmi, “Understanding the Somalia Conflagration,” 91–6; Khayre, “Self-Defence,” 232.
19 Chonka, “Spies,” 253; Chonka, “Cartoons in Conflict,” 361–3; Chonka, “New Media,” 400; Ingiriis, “Al-Itihaad to Al-Shabaab,” 2034–5, 2043–4.
20 See Markakis, Ethiopia, 144–8, 210–14, 310–23; Yihun, “Ethiopian Foreign Policy,” 683–5.
21 Barnes and Hassen, “The Rise,” 156; Menkhaus, “Governance Without Government,” 89; Dersso, Somalia Conflict, 6.
22 Lyons, “Ethiopia-Eritrea Conflict,” 173–4.
23 de Waal, “Do or Die.”
24 Menkhaus, “Governance Without Government,” 89; Barnes and Hassan, “The Rise,” 155.
25 Dersso, Somalia Conflict, 15–16; Lefebvre, “Choosing Sides,” 715–22.
26 Fisher, “International Perceptions,” 317–20.
27 Khayre, “Self-Defence,” 209.
28 Samatar, “Ethiopian Invasion,” 155; Ingiriis, “Al-Itihaad to Al-Shabaab,” 2041.
29 Krebs, Narrative, 16.
30 Campbell, Writing Security, 1–3; Hansen, Security as Practice, 6–7, 33–4.
31 For the latter see, for example, Williams, Fighting for Peace, 31–8.
32 Doty, “Foreign Policy,” 298–9, 302–4; Milliken, “Study of Discourse,” 229–30; Hansen, Security as Practice, 22, 51–4; Laffey and Weldes, “Methodological Reflections,” 28.
33 Ringmar, “Ontological Status of the State,” 452.
34 Dunn, “No Such Thing as the State,” 80.
35 Ibid., 79–81.
36 Berenskoetter, “National Biography,” 279.
37 Accessed in the archives of the Institute of Ethiopian Studies, Addis Ababa University, and the Centre français des études éthiopiennes (CFEE) in Addis Ababa.
38 “Ethiopia Worried as Fundamentalists in Mogadishu Declared Jihad, Eritrean Gov't Involved in Somalia: Bereket.” Ethiopian Herald, July 26, 2006; Yihdego, “Ethiopia's Military Action,” 667.
39 “Desperate Eritrean Gov't Resorts to Destabilising Region: Ambassador.” Ethiopian Herald, July 29, 2006; “Islamic Affairs Office, Sharia Court Denounce Somali Extremists.” Ethiopian Herald, July 30, 2006.
40 “Ethiopia Will Strengthen its Efforts for Peace in the Horn of Africa (Ministry of Information, November 3, 2006).” Ethiopian Herald, November 4, 2006.
41 “Ethiopia Does Not Have Any Agenda in Somalia but Avert the Extremist Threat (Ministry of Information, December 29, 2006).” Ethiopian Herald, December 30, 2006. Shaebia was the popular name for the Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF) during its liberation struggle against the Ethiopian imperial and Derg regimes.
42 For representations of this narrative in the 1990s, see “EPRDF Programme Implementation Guarantees End to Bloodshed, Dictatorship: Congress Resolution.” Ethiopian Herald, January 15, 1995; “President Negaso's Address to AACC [All Africa Conference of Churches] 7th Assembly (October 4, 1997).” Ethiopian Herald, October 7, 1997; “Premier's Speech at Butare National University in Rwanda.” Ethiopian Herald, December 13, 1997.
43 Haustein and Østebø, “EPRDF's Revolutionary Democracy.”
44 Aalen, Politics of Ethnicity; Abbink, “Ethnic-Based Federalism.”
45 Haustein and Østebø, “EPRDF's Revolutionary Democracy”; Abbink, “Religious Freedom.”
46 Gebresenbet, “Securitisation of Development,” 66.
47 “Terrorists Messengers of Eritrea: Chief Administrator [of Ethiopia's Somali Regional State].” Ethiopian Herald, July 28, 2006.
48 “‘The Security Council Reports Unequivocally State that Eritrea Is Arming the Terrorist Group In Somalia’ – Prime Minister Meles Zenawi.” Press Conference. Ethiopian Herald, June 30, 2006; “Meles Describes Stand of Some Opposition Leaders to Stay Aloof Amidst Attacks Coming from Somalia as Historic Hitch.” Ethiopian Herald, December 1, 2006.
49 “Ethiopia Seeks to See a Peaceful, Stable Somalia: Premier.” Ethiopian Herald, June 28, 2006.
50 “‘Failing to Bear Any Fruit Peacefully, Ethiopia is Forced to Resort to Force to Reverse the Aggression’ – PM Meles.” Ethiopian Herald, December 26, 2006.
51 Hoehne, “Counter-Terrorism,” 4, 13–14.
52 “Ethiopia Committed to Ensuring Dependable Peace, Security in Somalia: MoFA.” Ethiopian Herald, August 12, 2006.
53 “Ethiopia Will Strengthen its Efforts for Peace in the Horn of Africa (Ministry of Information, November 3, 2006).” Ethiopian Herald, November 4, 2006.
54 “Ethiopia Continues with Its Efforts of Ensuring the Interests of the People of Somalia (Ministry of Information, August 4, 2006).” Ethiopian Herald, August 5, 2006.
55 Dawit, G. 2006. “The Somali Extremists: War on Ethiopia Is Outrageous.” Ethiopian Herald, August 13.
56 “‘Ethiopia's Stand Has Always Been Sustainable Peace in Somalia’ – Fisiha Shawl, Somalia Affairs Desk Officer, Ministry of Foreign Affairs.” Ethiopian Herald, August 19, 2006.
57 “Ethiopia Will Strengthen Its Efforts for Peace in the Horn of Africa (Ministry of Information, November 3, 2006).” Ethiopian Herald, November 4, 2006.
58 Menkhaus, “Governance Without Government,” 89.
59 “Somali Islamists Pose ‘Clear and Present’ Danger to Ethiopia: Premier.” Ethiopian Herald, November 24, 2006.
60 “‘Ethiopia's Stand Has Always Been Sustainable Peace in Somalia’ – Fisiha Shawl, Somalia Affairs Desk Officer, Ministry of Foreign Affairs.” Ethiopian Herald, August 19, 2006; “Expansionist Agenda of Al-Itihad Described Extension of Bare's Wild Dream.” Ethiopian Herald, December 2, 2006.
61 “Expansionist Agenda of Al-Itihad Described Extension of Bare's Wild Dream.” Ethiopian Herald, December 2, 2006.
62 “Ethiopia has Rights to Defend Itself - PM Meles Zenawi.” Ethiopian Herald, November 26, 2006.
63 “Expansionist Agenda of Al-Itihad Described Extension of Bare's Wild Dream.” Ethiopian Herald, December 2, 2006.
64 “‘Failing to Bear Any Fruit Peacefully, Ethiopia is Forced to Resort to Force to Reverse the Aggression’ – PM Meles.” Ethiopian Herald, December 26, 2006.
65 “Ethiopia Compelled to Defend Itself.” Ethiopian Herald, November 28, 2006.
66 Interview with senior Ethiopian diplomat, Addis Ababa, 16 November 2016; Interview with advisor to Ethiopian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Addis Ababa, 2 December 2016.
67 Interview with senior Ethiopian diplomat, Addis Ababa, 16 November 2016.
68 “Fundamentalists in Somalia Retreating in Disarray.” Ethiopian Herald, December 26, 2006.
69 Hansen, Al-Shabaab, 46–7.
70 Menkhaus, Somalia After Ethiopian Occupation, 3.
71 “Ethiopia Does Not Have Any Agenda in Somalia but Avert the Extremist Threat (Ministry of Information, December 29, 2006).” Ethiopian Herald, December 30, 2006.
72 Interview with defence attaché of an EU member state at the time of the intervention, Addis Ababa, 22 November 2016.
73 Zenawi, Meles. 2007. Report to the House of Peoples Representatives (HPR). Addis Ababa: House of Peoples Representatives, January 2. Unofficial translation.
74 Dibaba, Getachew. 2006. “Parliament Endorses Resolution to Reverse Somali Islamists Aggression.” Ethiopian Herald, December 1; “‘Failing to Bear Any Fruit Peacefully, Ethiopia is Forced to Resort to Force to Reverse the Aggression’ – PM Meles.” Ethiopian Herald, December 26, 2006.
75 This claim has been discussed and contested. See Allo, “Ethiopia's Armed Intervention,” 139–67; Khayre, “Self-Defence,” 208–33; Yihdego, “Ethiopia's Military Action,” 668–76.
76 Cable. “Somalia: PM Meles Publicly Acknowledges ‘Defensive Measures’ in Somalia.” WikiLeaks, December 26, 2006. Accessed June 19, 2020. https://wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/06ADDISABABA3390_a.html.
77 Zenawi, Meles. 2007. Report to the House of Peoples Representatives (HPR). Addis Ababa: House of Peoples Representatives, January 2. Unofficial translation.
78 Cable. “Ethiopia: PM Meles Meets with FMR Secstate Albright on Darfur, Somalia, Eritrea.” WikiLeaks, December 6, 2006. Accessed June 19, 2020. https://wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/06ADDISABABA3206_a.html; Cable. “Ethiopia: Meles Alters Stance on Military Action on Somalia.” WikiLeaks, December 8, 2006. Accessed June 19, 2020. https://wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/06ADDISABABA3240_a.html.
79 Interview with former TPLF central committee member, Addis Ababa, 8 November 2016; Interview with Ethiopian regional security analyst working for a government think-tank, Addis Ababa, 11 November 2016; Interview with senior Ethiopian diplomat, Addis Ababa, 16 November 2016.
80 “‘We’re Not Saying We Might be Attacked, We’re Saying We’ve Been Already Attacked’ – Prime Minister Meles Zenawi.” Press Conference. Ethiopian Herald, November 28, 2006; “‘Union of Islamic Courts Has Simply Melted Away’ – Prime Minister Meles Zenawi.” Press conference. Ethiopian Herald, December 30, 2006.
81 “‘When Push Comes to Shove, We Will be on Our Own’ – PM Meles.” Press Conference. Ethiopian Herald, November 29, 2006.
82 Interview with senior Ethiopian Ministry of Foreign Affairs official, Addis Ababa, 21 December 2016.
83 Interview with senior Ethiopian diplomat, Addis Ababa, 16 November 2016; Interviews with former senior Ethiopian Ministry of Foreign Affairs official who worked on Somalia in the mid-2000s, Addis Ababa, 24 November 2016 and 21 December 2016.