Real governance of the COVID-19 crisis in the Great Lakes region of Africa

ABSTRACT

During the COVID-19 crisis in Africa, several contradictory discourses have tried to predict how the continent will experience the pandemic. Based on a qualitative approach, this article goes beyond generalized and arbitrary predictions and analyzes how three countries in the Great Lakes region of Africa have managed the pandemic. We first analyze which measures the respective governments of the three countries – and their decentralized authorities – have taken. We also analyze up to which extend international prescriptions – as propagated by the World Health Organization – have influenced their choices. Second, we analyze how government measures have transformed throughout implementation and interacted with the specific circumstances of each context. Authorities, on the one hand, navigated between rigid and more flexible interpretation of national prescriptions, entering into practical arrangements or adopting force. Populations on the other hand have resorted to acceptance, circumvention, contestation or resistance. Our research ultimately points to the way in which political dynamics, resistance, violence, and local redefine both national policies and their international reference frames. In this way, the governance dynamics of the COVID-19 pandemic in the African Great Lakes region provide a lens through which we can complexify our understandings of real governance in Africa.

KEYWORDS:

• COVID-19
• daily governance
• Rwanda
• Burundi
• DRC
• public policy
• resistance
• resilience

Acknowledgement

An earlier, French-language version of this research is included as “L'Afrique des Grands Lacs à l'épreuve de la covid-19: comprendre la gouvernance réelle”, in the forthcoming edition of Conjonctures de l'Afrique centrale 2021 (Cahiers Africaines n.97, Paris, l'Harmattan, 25–54).

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Correction Statement

This article has been republished with minor changes. These changes do not impact the academic content of the article.

Notes

1 For a discussion on the alarmist international reactions to health crises, see Benton and Dionne, “International Political Economy.”

2 UNECA, Coronovirus; UNCTAD, Investment Trends Monitor; Edouard Le Ricque, “Coronavirus: Bill Gates craint que le virus ne fasse 10 millions de morts en Afrique,” tom’s guide, February 17, 2020, https://www.tomsguide.fr/coronavirus-bill-gates-craint-quil-ne-fasse-10-millions-de-morts-en-afrique/.

3 Ibid.

4 Nkengasong, “Let Africa into the Market”; Tougan and Théwis, “COVID-19 et Sécurité Alimentaire”; Mouton, Agbobli, and Charland, “La crise de la COVID-19.”

5 Dunia et al., “The COVID-19 Opportunity.”

6 Hien, “La résilience des systèmes de santé”; Bassou, “La résilience de l’Afrique.”

7 ONU Info, “Covid-19: l’Afrique a réagi rapidement, mais l’ONU appelle à la vigilance et à la solidarité,” May 20, 2020, https://news.un.org/fr/story/2020/05/1069242.

8 Oppong, “The African COVID-19 Anomaly.”

9 Le Monde Afrique, “Madagascar: le président défend sa potion prétendument anti-coronavirus,” May 12, https://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2020/05/12/le-president-malgache-defend-sa-potion-pretendument-anti-coronavirus_6039398_3212.html: Le Point Afrique, “L’Afrique partage le destin du monde,” May 9, 2020, https://www.lepoint.fr/afrique/quand-macky-sall-interpelle-l-apres-covid-19–09-04-2020-2370767_3826.php.

10 Sesay, “Promotion of the Rule of Law.”

11 Sutter, “Burundi: un virus très politique”; Job Kakuke, “Burundi-Coronavirus: Des médecins dénoncent ‘le déni’ de la pandémie au plus haut sommet de l’état,” Grands Lacs News, June 6, 2020, https://www.grandslacsnews.com/posts/burundi-coronavirus-des-medecins-denoncent-le-deni-de-la-pandemie-au-plus-haut-sommet-de-l-etat-499.

12 Ruud Elmendorp, “COVID-19 Diaries: Can Tanzania Really Be Coronavirus-Free?” VOA News, July 20, 2020, https://www.voanews.com/COVID-19-pandemic/COVID-19-diaries/COVID-19-diaries-can-tanzania-really-be-coronavirus-free; Le Point Afrique, “COVID-19: la Tanzanie ne veut pas entendre parler du virus,” April 20, 2020, https://www.lepoint.fr/afrique/COVID-19-la-tanzanie-ne-veut-pas-entendre-parler-du-virus-20-04-2020-2372159_3826.php; BBC News, “Coronavirus: John Magufuli declares Tanzania free of COVID-19,” June 8, 2020, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-52966016.

13 F. Mattheis, “La crise du COVID-19 et les organisations régionales,” The Conversation, May 12, 2020, https://theconversation.com/la-crise-du-COVID-19-et-les-organisations-regionales-138261.

14 A. Zacharie, “Le COVID-19, révélateur de toutes les crises,” CNCD 11.11.11, March 19, 2020, https://www.cncd.be/arnaud-zacharie-pandemie-coronavirus-COVID-19-revelateur-crises.

15 Dunia et al., “The COVID-19 Opportunity.”

16 See for example Enria, “The Ebola Crisis in Sierra Leone”; Chigudu, The Political Life of an Epidemic.

17 Lavigne Delville and Ayimpam, “L’action publique en Afrique.”

18 Titeca and De Herdt, “Real Governance Beyond the ‘Failed State.’”

19 Sastry and Dutta, “Health Communication in the Time of Ebola.”

20 Muchielli, “Le développement des méthodes qualitatives.”

21 In the discussion below, unless otherwise noted, specific details come from researchers’ direct observations.

22 Moulin, “L’anthropologie au défi de l’Ebola.”

23 Abramowitz et al., “Community-centered Responses to Ebola.”

24 Hewlett and Hewlett, Ebola, Culture and Politics.

25 Moulin, “L’anthropologie au défi de l’Ebola.”

26 Anna McLaughlin, “Investigating the Most Convincing COVID-19 Conspiracy Theories,” Inspiring the Mind Blog Series, June 17, 2020, https://www.inspirethemind.org/blog/investigating-the-most-convincing-COVID-19-conspiracy-theories.

27 Durand, Jobert, and Muller, “l’État en action”; Bierschenk and Olivier de Sardan, “Studying the Dynamics of African Bureaucracies.”

28 Chigudu, The Political Life of an Epidemic; Benton, HIV Exceptionalism.

29 Ibid.

30 Titeca and De Herdt, “Real Governance Beyond the ‘Failed State.’”

31 Olivier De Sardan, “Développement, modes de gouvernance et normes pratiques.”

32 De Herdt and Olivier de Sardan, Real Governance and Practical Norms; Titeca and De Herdt, “Real Governance Beyond the ‘Failed State’”; Nyenyezi and Ansoms, “Droit et conflits fonciers à Bukavu.”

33 De Herdt and Olivier de Sardan, Real Governance and Practical Norms; Titeca and De Herdt, “Real Governance Beyond the ‘Failed State.’”

34 Olivier De Sardan and Piccoli, “Cash Transfers and the Revenge of Contexts.”

35 Iwacu les voix du Burundi, “Le Burundi est une exception car c’est un pays qui a donné à Dieu la première place,” March 21, 2020, https://www.iwacu-burundi.org/covid-19-le-burundi-est-une-exception-car-cest-un-pays-qui-a-donne-a-dieu-la-premiere-place/.

36 Tanguy Berthemet, “Au Burundi, Pierre Nkurunziza s’en remet à Dieu pour contrer l’épidémie de coronavirus,” Le Figaro, May 6, 2020, https://www.lefigaro.fr/international/au-burundi-pierre-nkurunziza-s-en-remet-a-dieu-pour-contrer-l-epidemie-de-coronavirus-20200506.

37 Gaston Sindimwo, “Pas de question d’ajourner les élections,” Iwacu les voix du Burundi, April 7, 2020, https://www.iwacu-burundi.org/burundi-covid-19-lolucome-en-appelle-aux-mesures-strictes/.

38 Jeune Afrique, “Présidentielle au Burundi: vers une campagne électorale dans l’ombre du coronavirus ?” March 26, 2020, https://www.jeuneafrique.com/915840/politique/presidentielle-au-burundi-vers-une-campagne-electorale-dans-lombre-du-coronavirus/.

39 Mashariki TV, May 2, 2020, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3u-M19jZoig.

40 Ibid.

41 Interview with Paul Gatoto, May 13, 2020, Bujumbura.

42 Iwacu les voix du Burundi, “Covid-19: le nouveau gouvernement prête serment et s’engage à freiner la propagation,” June 30, 2020, https://iwacu.global.ssl.fastly.net/covid-19-le-nouveau-gouvernement-prete-serment-et-sengage-a-freiner-sa-propagation/.

43 Ibid.

44 Veronique Petit and Nelly Robin, “Covid-19 et migrations en Afrique: la réduction des mobilités, une riposte efficace?” The Conversation, May 31, 2020, https://theconversation.com/covid-19-et-migrations-en-afrique-la-reduction-des-mobilites-une-riposte-efficace-139283.

45 African Development Bank, Perspectives économiques en Afrique 2020.

46 International Labor Organization, “Aider les travailleurs pauvres.”

47 World Food Programme and International Organization for Migration, Populations at Risk.

48 Berchin, Salguerinho, and de Andrade Guerra, “GAIA 3.0.”

49 UNHABITAT, COVID-19 in African Cities.

50 UNHABITAT and WFP, Impact of COVID-19 on Livelihoods, Food Security & Nutrition in East Africa – Urban Focus 2020.

51 Olivier De Sardan, “A la recherche des normes pratiques.”

52 Rwanda Television (RTV), 8 pm news, August 2, 2020.

53 FLASH TV RWANDA, “Musanze: Abayobozi bagaragaye mu mashusho bakubita bikomeye abaturage,” May 14, 2020, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0G4KlkokXTg.

54 IGIHE, “Musanze: Gitifu w’Umurenge n’uw’Akagali bafungiwe gukubita abaturage bahagaritswe mu mirimo,” May 15, 2020, https://igihe.com/amakuru/u-rwanda/article/musanze-gitifu-w-umurenge-n-uw-akagali-bafungiwe-gukubita-abaturage; Kigali Today, “RIB yafunze Gitifu w’Umurenge, uw’Akagari na ba DASSO babiri,” May 15, 2020, https://www.kigalitoday.com/umutekano/RIB-yafunze-Gitifu-w-Umurenge-uw-Akagari-na-ba-DASSO-babiri.

55 Top Congo FM, “Une fille de 13 ans meurt pendant un contrôle de masque par les policiers au quartier Pumbu dans la commune de Mont-Ngafula,” May 9, 2020, http://mobile.topcongo.fm/article/une-fille-de-13-ans-meurt-pendant-un-controle-de-masque-a-kinshasa--6151.

56 Vox Pop Radio – RTCT, 8 pm news, May 23, 2020.

57 Daniel Weng, WhatsApp video circulated in May 2020.

58 Iwacu, les voix du Burundi, “Covid-19: Quand le port du masque devient ‘illégal,’” June 2, 2020, https://www.iwacu-burundi.org/covid-19-quand-le-port-du-masque-devient-illegal/.

59 Banque centrale du Congo, “Mesures prises par la BCC pour Atténuer l’impact négatif de la pandémie au COVID-19 sur l’économie congolaise,” Statement signed by the Governor Déogratias Mutombo Nyembo, March 24, 2020, https://www.tralac.org/documents/resources/covid-19/countries/3438-central-bank-of-congo-communique-measures-taken-to-mitigate-negative-impact-of-covid-19-on-the-congolese-economy-24-march-2020-french/file.html.

60 Politico.cd, “L’article ‘La RDC et le Rwanda conviennent d’ouvrir leurs frontières communes’ a été retiré, les faits ont été prouvés faux,” May 29, 2020, https://www.politico.cd/la-rdc-a-la-une/2020/05/29/la-rdc-et-le-rwanda-conviennent-douvrir-leurs-frontieres-communes.html/62077/.

61 Interview with the responsible of the P-ACT association, April 2, 2020, Bukavu.

62 Office of Prime Minister, Statement on cabinet decisions of June 2, 2020.

63 Fonseca Mansianga, “Sud-Kivu: dans la foulée de sa démission, Dr Mukwege déplore le délai de deux semaines pour avoir les résultats des échantillons envoyés à l’INRB,” Actualité.cd, June 10, 2020, https://actualite.cd/2020/06/10/sud-kivu-dans-la-foulee-de-sa-demission-dr-mukwege-deplore-le-delai-de-deux-semaines.

64 Ibid.

65 L’Interview.cd, “Sud-Kivu: Les infirmiers réclament le paiement de leurs salaires et primes de risque du mois d’avril et mai,” May 19, 2020, https://linterview.cd/sud-kivu-les-infirmiers-reclament-le-paiement-de-leurs-salaires-et-primes-de-risque-du-mois-davril-et-mai/?fbclid=IwAR2dh1-r3xQlZiZX8c27z50h1vVk3X_jdZJSMcCn-ipVrmDp7_0c-59HnuY.

66 Le Figaro, “A Kinshasa, l’UE marque sa «priorité» pour l’Afrique avec un «pont aérien,” June 8, 2020, https://www.lefigaro.fr/flash-actu/a-kinshasa-l-ue-marque-sa-priorite-pour-l-afrique-avec-un-pont-aerien-20200608.

67 Bisoka, Vlassenroot, and Ramazani, “From Bio-Legitimacy to Anti-Humanitarianism”; see also: https://twitter.com/OlyIlunga/status/1153295778275909634/photo/1 (accessed March 24, 2021).

68 Ibid.

69 RTBF Info, “Coronavirus: Trois morts dans des manifestations contre la fermeture du grand marché de Kinshasa,” June 9, 2020, https://www.rtbf.be/info/monde/detail_coronavirus-trois-morts-dans-des-manifestations-contre-la-fermeture-du-grand-marche-de-kinshasa?id=10518945.

70 Agence Ecofin, “Au Rwanda, une entreprise se lance dans la production de masques chirurgicaux,” June 15, 2020, https://www.agenceecofin.com/entreprendre/1506-77537-au-rwanda-une-entreprise-se-lance-dans-la-production-de-masques-chirurgicaux.

71 Purdekova, Making Ubumwe; Thomson, Whispering Truth to Power.

72 Iwacu, les voix du Burundi, “Tisane Kira 2020: effet placebo contre le coronavirus?” June 9, 2020, https://www.iwacu-burundi.org/tisane-kira-2020-effet-placebo-contre-le-coronavirus/.

73 TV5 Monde, “Coronavirus en RDC: un docteur défend les vertus de l’artémisia,” June 12, 2020, https://information.tv5monde.com/video/coronavirus-en-rdc-un-docteur-defend-les-vertus-de-l-artemisia.

74 Radio Okapi, “Coronavirus: 3 enfants meurent à Kinshasa après avoir été purgés par leur mère,” May 26, 2020, https://www.radiookapi.net/2020/03/26/actualite/sante/coronavirus-3-enfants-meurent-kinshasa-apres-avoir-ete-purges-par-leur.

75 Wald, Contagious.

Additional information

Funding

This work was supported by ECA/CREAC, by the research project ARC-SERTIS (UCLouvain) “Resistance to international prescriptions and injunctions in Africa and the Middle East today,” and by the Fonds de la Recherche Scientifique – FNRS (Belgium) [grant number T0002.21].