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ABSTRACT
In recent years, several African states have increasingly militarized their wildlife authorities in response growing threats to protected areas (PAs) that come from a range of actors including hunters, poachers, and armed groups. As park rangers now face the overlapping challenges of conservation, law enforcement, and security in PAs, many are provided with paramilitary training, lethal weapons, and sophisticated equipment, often in conjunction with national armies and international actors. Much of the prevailing literature on “green militarization” has done much to advance our understanding of the potential negative consequences associated with the coercive roles of rangers in PAs, but often sidesteps the social, political, and organizational contexts in which park rangers operate. This article presents an interdisciplinary collaboration between anthropology, criminology, and political science that builds a multi-level analytical framework to examine patterns of militarization of the Uganda Wildlife Authority. It considers the political development of Uganda’s wildlife authorities over the longue durée, the attitudes of individual rangers vis-à-vis their coercive roles as agents of law enforcement, and the organization and behavior of rangers at the sub-national level as they engage communities adjacent to Mount Elgon National Park.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Funding details
This work was supported by by the Minerva-United States Institute of Peace (USIP) Early Career Scholar Award (2019); The Center for Public Choice and Market Process Research Grant, the College of Charleston (2018); Faculty Research and Development Grant, College of Charleston (2018); Fulbright Hays Doctoral Dissertation Research Award (2018); American Philosophical Society, Lewis and Clark Fund for Exploration and Field Research (2018); University of Florida Department of Anthropology (2016; 2018); University of Florida International Center (2018); University of Florida Tropical Conservation and Development Program (2016).
Notes
1 World Wildlife Fund https://www.worldwildlife.org/threats/illegal-wildlife-trade [accessed 5 June 2020
2 Haenlein and Smith, Poaching, Wildlife Trafficking and Security in Africa.
3 Duffy, Killing for Conservation, 43.
4 Duffy et al, “Why We Must Question,” 66.
5 Day, “Sister Forces.”
6 Thelen, K. “Historical Institutionalism”; and Bernard, Research Methods in Anthropology; Dewalt and DeWalt, Participant Observation; Spradley, An Ethnographic Interview.
7 Pierson, Politics in Time.
8 Kenya Water Towers Agency, “Policy Brief”; Muhweezi et al, “Introducing a Transboundary Ecosystem”; Petursson et al, “Transboundary Biodiversity Management”; and UNESCO, “Mount Elgon Biosphere Reserve.”
9 Lunstrum, “Green Militarization.”
10 Jooste and Ferreira “An Appraisal of Green Militarization”; Mogomotsi and Madiegele, “Live by the gun”; Humphreys and Smith, “War and Wildlife”; and Henk “Biodiversity and the Military in Botswana”.
11 Cylke, “Militarization of Africa’s Animal Poachers”; and Funk, “Poaching in Africa.”
12 Duffy et al, “Why we Must Question the Militarisation of Conservation.”
13 Arsel and Büscher, “Nature Inc.”; Lombard, “Threat Economies”; and Lunstrum and Ybarra, “Deploying Difference.”
14 Verweijen and Marijnen, “The Counterinsurgency/Conservation Nexus”; and Peluso and Watts, Violent Environments.
15 Massé, “Anti-poaching’s politics of (in)visibility”; and Marijnen and Verweijen, “Selling Green Militarization.”
16 Warren and Baker, “WWF Secret War.”
17 Arsel and Büscher, “Nature Inc.”; Lombard, “Threat Economies”; and Lunstrum and Ybarra, “Deploying Difference;” Verweijen and Marijnen, “The Counterinsurgency/Conservation Nexus”; Peluso, “Coercing Conservation.”
18 Bennett et al, “Conservation Social Science.”
19 Gibson, Politicians and Poachers; Duffy, Killing for Conservation; and Peluso, “Coercing Conservation?”
20 Lombard and Tubiana, “Bringing the Tracker-Guards Back In”; Verweijen, “A Microdynamics Approach”; Moreto, “Poaching in Uganda”; Moreto, “Occupational Stress”; and Moreto, “Such Misconducts.”
21 Mutiga, “In Africa, All Conservation is Local.”
22 Brockington, Fortress Conservation.
23 Marks, The Imperial Lion; and Neumann, Imposing Wilderness.
24 Trogisch, “Geographies of Fear”; Titeca et al, “Conservation as a Social Contract.”
25 Schauer, Wildlife Between Empire and Nation; Lunstrum, “Conservation Meets Militarisation”; Neumann, “The Postwar Conservation Boom.”
26 Day, “Sister Forces.”.
27 Omarra-Otunnu, Politics and the Military in Uganda.
28 Reid, A History of Modern Uganda.
29 Tripp, Museveni’s Uganda.
30 Tapscott, Arbitrary States.
31 Khisa and Day. “Reconceptualising civil-military relations in Africa.”
32 Rwengabo, “Regime stability in post-1986 Uganda”; Khisa, “Politicisation and Professionalisation.”
33 Day, “Sister Forces.”
34 Ashaba, “Historical Roots of Militarised Conservation.”
35 Uganda Wildlife Act, 2019.
36 While there is no mention of wildlife authorities’ coercive role in Uganda’s Constitution, it is implicit that rangers are auxiliary members of state security forces.
37 Kinloch, The Shamba Raiders.
38 Schauer, Wildlife Between Empire and Nation..
39 Abrahamsen and Williams, “Security beyond the State.”
40 Khisa and Day, “Reconceptualising Civil-Military Relations.”.
41 Rwengabo, “Regime Stability in Post-1986 Uganda.”
42 Uganda Protectorate, “Annual Report of the Game Department 1936,” 12; “Annual Report of the Game Department 1937,” 11; and “Annual Report of the Game Department 1939,” 6.
43 Uganda Protectorate, “Annual Report of the Game Department 1934,” 9.
44 An analysis of Game Department reports shows that during the 1950s GD doubled its staff and quadrupled expenditures.
45 Uganda National Parks Trustees, Uganda National Parks Handbook; and Willock, The Enormous Zoo.
46 Uganda Protectorate, “Annual Report of the Game Department 1947,” 3.
47 Uganda Protectorate, “Annual Report of the Game Department 1951,” 10.
48 Omara-Otunnu, Politics and the Military in Uganda.
49 Interview, former UNP ranger, Kitgum, November 2018.
50 Uganda Government, “Ministry of Animal Industry, Game and Fisheries,” unpublished reports 1960-1970.
51 Ministry of Tourism and Wildlife, “Annual Report of the Game Department 1975.”
52 Review of UNP Director Quarterly Reports, 1971-1977; Interview, former UNP ranger, Gulu, November 2018.
53 Interview, UWA official, Kampala, October 2018; also personal correspondence of Dr. E. L. Edroma, UNP Chief Research Officer, and UNP Board of Trustees, 17 July 1979.
54 IUCN, “Proposal for a National Conservation Strategy.”
55 Interview UWA official, Kampala, March 2019.
56 Reynolds and Pomeroy, “Uganda’s National Parks,” 17, 26.
57 de Torrente, Post-conflict Reconstruction.
58 Tindigarukayo-Kashagire, “Merger of the Game Department.”
59 Reynolds and Pomeroy, “Uganda’s National Parks,” 30.
60 Day, “The Fates of Rebels.”
61 Day and Reno, “In Harm’s Way.”
62 Allio, “Bwindi catastrophe.”
63 Interview, UPDF official, Kampala, April 2019.
64 Interviews, UWA officials, Kampala, October 2018, March 2019.
65 Interview, UWA ranger, Kibale National Park, Uganda, 11 July 2014.
66 Interview, UWA ranger, Lake Mburo National Park, Uganda, 4 August 2014.
67 Interview, UWA ranger, Lake Mburo, Uganda, 3 August 2014.
68 Interview, UWA ranger, Queen Elizabeth National Park, Uganda, 18 July 2014.
69 Interview, UWA ranger, Headquarters/UWEC, Uganda, 16 August 2014.
70 Interview, UWA ranger, Queen Elizabeth National Park, Uganda, 20 July 2014.
71 Interview, UWA ranger, Queen Elizabeth National Park, Uganda, 19 July 2014.
72 Interview, UWA, Headquarters/UWEC, Uganda, 13 August 2014.
73 Massé, “Conservation Law Enforcement”.
74 Moreto and Matusiak, ‘“We Fight Wrong Doers.”
75 Interview, UWA ranger, Kibale National Park, Uganda, 13 July 2014.
76 Interview, UWA ranger, Kibale National Park, Uganda, 12 July 2014.
77 Interview, UWA ranger, Kibale National Park, Uganda, 12 July 2014.
78 Interview, UWA ranger, Queen Elizabeth National Park, Uganda, 22 July 2014.
79 Interview, UWA ranger, Kibale National Park, Uganda, 12 July 2014.
80 Interview, UWA ranger, Lake Mburo National Park, Uganda, 4 August 2014.
81 Moreto and Charlton, “Rangers Can’t be with Every Elephant.”
82 Interview, UWA ranger, Queen Elizabeth National Park, Uganda, 21 July 2014.
83 Interview, UWA ranger, Kibale National Park, Uganda, 11 July 2014.
84 Interview, UWA ranger, Headquarters/UWEC, 8 July 2014.
85 Interview, UWA ranger, Kibale National Park, Uganda, 15 July 2014.
86 Infield and Namara, “Community Attitudes and Behaviour.”
87 Interview, UWA ranger, Kibale National Park, Uganda, 15 July 2014.
88 Interview, UWA ranger, Lake Mburo National Park, Uganda, 5 August 2014.
89 Ravary, Forest for the Trees.
90 Jan Beek et al, Police in Africa; Chalfin. Neoliberal Frontiers; Gonzalez et al. Militarization.
91 Agrawal, Environmentality; and West, Conservation is Our Government Now.
92 Hulme and Murphree, African Wildlife and Livelihoods; West and Brechin, Resident Peoples and National Parks.
93 Scott, From Conflict to Collaboration.
94 Petursson and P. Vedeld, “The ‘Nine Lives’ of Protected Areas.”
95 Mugagga and Buyinza, “Land Tenure and Soil Conservation practices.”
96 Brockington, Fortress Conservation.
97 Cavanagh and Benjaminsen, “The ‘Spectacular Failure’.”
98 Scott, From Conflict to Collaboration.
99 Interview, UWA ranger, Kapchorwa District, Uganda, 6 December 2018; Interview, UWA ranger, Kapchorwa District, Uganda, 2 November 2018.
100 E.g. contested arrests, boundary disputes, or acts of violence against residents by rangers.
101 Interview, UWA ranger, Kapchorwa District, Uganda, 7 December 2018; Interview, resident, Kapchorwa District, Uganda, 11 January 2019.
102 Interview, UWA ranger, Kapchorwa District, Uganda, 7 December 2018.
103 Interview, UWA ranger, Kapchorwa District, Uganda, 2 November 2018; Interview, UWA ranger, Kapchorwa District, Uganda, 6 December 2018.
104 Interview, UWA official, Mbale District, Uganda, 3 December 2018.
105 Interview, UWA official, Mbale District, Uganda, 3 December 2018.
106 Interview, UWA ranger, Kapchorwa District, Uganda, 2 November 2018.
107 Community-UWA meeting, Kapchorwa District, 25 October 2018.
108 Interview, resource use official, Kapchorwa District, Uganda, 30 October 2018; Interview, resource user, Kapchorwa District, Uganda, 31 October 2018; Interview, subcounty government official, Kapchorwa District, Uganda, 1 November 2018.
109 Moreto et al, “Anything We Do.”
110 Moreto et al, “Self-Legitimacy Among Rangers.”