Power in floating spaces and closed spaces: lessons from a Chinese volunteer tourism organization’s practice in Nairobi, Kenya

ABSTRACT

The study delves into the operations of a Chinese volunteer tourism organization in Mathare, Kenya, a south-south context that has not been commonly explored in development practice. The first-hand data were collected during two fieldwork trips in 2018 and 2019, employing qualitative research methods such as participant observations and in-depth interviews. By adapting the ‘powercube’ theoretical framework, the research uncovers the presence of control and manipulation beneath the outward claims of empowerment made by the organization. The analysis reveals that the lack of organizational formality, with power being floated in many situations, has paved the way for both deliberate and unintentional forms of dominance in the realm of voluntary work. As a result, conflicts and disparities have arisen within the community. Recognizing it as a mode of development practice helps us to see new ways that power is articulated and shapes development interventions in African communities.

KEYWORDS:

• Volunteer tourism
• international development
• China
• Kenya
• power analysis

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to people in Mathare, who are warm-hearted, friendly, and inspiring, for welcoming me to do the research ‘for’ them. Thanks to the Chinese organization for accepting me to do the research ‘on’ them and to all the volunteer tourists for allowing me to do the research ‘with’ them. The author states there is no conflict of interest in this study.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

1 Barbieri et al., “Volunteer Tourism,” 509.

2 Xiang, “A New Mobility Regime in the Making,” 4.

3 Gaventa, “Finding Spaces for Change.”

4 Wang, “Chinese Narrative in International Development and Volunteer Tourism.”

5 Watkins et al., “Outsourcing Social Transformation,” 285.

6 Fernando, The Political Economy of NGOs, 8.

7 Brass, “Blurring Boundaries,” 220.

8 Brass, Allies or Adversaries, 60.

9 Ibid., 16.

10 Ibid., 232.

11 Mosses, Cultivating Development, 2.

12 Morfit, “‘AIDS is Money’,” 65.

13 Kapoor, The Postcolonial Politics of Development, 39.

14 Banks and Hulme, “Beyond the State, Beyond the Market? Civil Society and NGOs,” 12.

15 Develtere and Bruyn, “The Emergence of a Fourth Pillar in Development Aid,” 916.

16 Raymond and Hall, “The Development of Cross-Cultural (mis)Understanding Through Volunteer Tourism,” 530.

17 Mostafanezhad, “The Politics of Aesthetics in Volunteer Tourism.”

18 Guttentag, “The Possible Negative Impacts of Volunteer Tourism,” 541.

19 Lough and Black, “Confronting the White Elephant,” 209.

20 Bargeman et al., “Volunteer Tourism Impacts in Ghana,” 1494.

21 Simpson, “‘Doing Development’,” 690.

22 Guttentag, “The Possible Negative Impacts of Volunteer Tourism,” 542.

23 Sin, “Volunteer Tourism,” 497.

24 Thompson and Taheri, “Capital Deployment and Exchange in Volunteer Tourism,” 7.

25 Mosses, Cultivating Development, 4.

26 OECD. “Development Database on Aid Activities,” 41.

27 Mcloughlin, “Factors Affecting State-Non-Governmental Organisation Relations in Service Provision,” 248.

28 A Swahili term meaning “let’s pull together.”

29 Prince and Brown, Volunteer Economies, 16.

30 Brass, Allies or Adversaries, 63.

31 See note 28 above.

32 Brass, Allies or Adversaries, 77.

33 Ibid., 72.

34 Ibid., 126.

35 Andvig and Barasa, “A Political Economy of Slum Spaces,” 78.

36 Ibid. 77.

37 Renwick, “China’s Approach to International Development,” 111.

38 AIESEC, The Power of Youth, 9.

39 Wang, “Chinese Narrative in International Development and Volunteer Tourism,” 2306.

40 Brass, “Why Do NGOs Go Where They Go?” 5.

41 Interview, DD, male, local school director, Mathare.

42 Interview, EH, female, local school principal and director, Mathare.

43 Brass, Allies or Adversaries, 209.

44 Interview, SY, male, local school principal and director, Mathare.

45 Interview, DS, male, a local community worker, Mathare. Although the interviewee referred to “Mathare people” as “they” in this quote, he actually meant “we” in this case, because he is from Mathare as well and works in Mathare.

46 Gaventa, “Finding Spaces for Change.”

47 IDS, “Power Pack,” 69.

48 IDS, “Power Pack,” 15.

49 Luttrell et al., “Understanding and Operationalising Empowerment,” 23.

50 Interview, RH, female, local school principal, Mathare.

51 Interview, BR, female, local school principal, Mathare.

52 Interview, GE, female, local school principal, Mathare.

53 Arnstein, “A Ladder of Citizen Participation,” 2.

54 Ibid.

55 See note 2 above.

56 Interview, KN, male, local staff member.

57 Interview, DD, male, local school director, Mathare.

58 Mcloughlin, “Factors Affecting State-Non-Governmental Organisation Relations in Service Provision,” 245.

59 Luttrell et al., “Understanding and Operationalising Empowerment,” 27.

60 IDS, “Power Pack,” 69.

61 Cornwall, “Making Spaces, Changing Places,” 17.

62 Interview, MH, male, Chinese staff member.

63 Interview, SA, male, local school director, Mathare.

64 Interview, BN, male, local school principal, Mathare.

65 Munsaka and Charnley, “‘We Do Not Have Chiefs Who are Disabled’,” 766.

66 Ibid. 760.

67 Pawar, “Social Development: Progress So Far,” 57.

68 Cornwall, “Making Spaces, Changing Places,” 8.

69 See note 43 above.

70 See note 55 above.

71 Interview, DD, male, local school director, Mathare.

72 Brass, Allies or Adversaries, 12.

73 Gaventa, “Applying Power Analysis,” 118.