Nationalism and the May Thirtieth Movement: an analysis of the northern intelligentsia

Abstract

Trilateral interactions existed between nationalism, the May Thirtieth Movement and the northern intelligentsia. Nationalism was an intellectual trend mainly popular among intellectuals, especially the northern intelligentsia. On the one hand, this trend of thought drove the Movement throughout the country; on the other hand, it exacerbated differentiation and stratification among the intelligentsia, which, to some extent, restrained the Movement. Gradually, it had become the spiritual core around which the right‐wing intelligentsia gathered, forming the rudiment of the “Third Force”. At the same time, the May Thirtieth Movement provided ideal conditions for nationalism to reach its climax.

Keywords:

• nationalism
• May Thirtieth Movement
• northern intelligentsia

Notes

1. See Arthur Waldron, From War to Nationalism: China's Turning Point, 1924–1925 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 263–80.

2. Odoric Y.K. Wou, The Military and Nationalism: The Political Thinking of Wu P'ei‐fu, in China in the 1920s eds. F. Gilbert Chan and Thomas H. Etzold (New York: New Viewpoints, 1976), 112–4.

3. Zeng Qi, the main leader of the Awakening Lion Clique, criticized Chiang Kai‐Shek dividing guojia zhuyi into two kinds, the widesence guojia zhuyi and the narrow sense guojia zhuyi, for the mistake of confusing imperialism with guojia zhuyi. Zeng Qi, “Chiang Kai‐Shek duiyu gongchandang renshi zhi jinbu” [The Advancement of Chiang Kai‐Shek's Understanding of the Communist Party], Xingshi zhoubao, no. 136 (1927), 4–5. Chen Qitian, another leader of the Clique, also pointed out this division was a plot of the Communists. Chen Qitian, “Women suo zhuzhang de guojia zhuyi guozhen shi xiaai de ma?” [Is the guojia zhuyi We Protest Really Narrow Sense?], Xingshi zhoubao, no. 136 (1927), 5.

4. Chang Daozhi, another name is Chang Yansheng, a leader of the Clique, once said that minzu zhuyi was uncivilized guojia zhuyi, and that guojia zhuyi was advanced minzu zhuyi. Chang Daozhi, “Guojia zhuyi xiaoshi” [Brief History of guojia zhuyi], Xingshi zhoubao, no. 134 (1927), 14.

5. Chen Duxiu, “1916 nian” [The Year of 1916], Qingnian zazhi [Magazine of the Youth] 1, no. 5 (1916), 2.

6. In December 1926, Li Huang mentioned that the Nationalists were more than 10,000, and half of them were students. Li Huang, “Gongchandang de fan guojia zhuyi zhou” [The Communists' Anti‐nationalism Week], Xingshi zhoubao, no. 115 (1926), 2.

7. It should be mentioned that the Communists' strategies toward the Movement varied constantly.

8. Zeng Qi, “Wuhu riren jinggan zaihua renyi cansha gongren” [How Dare the Japanese in China Slaughter Workers at Will], Xingshi zhoubao, no. 33 (1925), 1.

9. Yi Zu, “Xin E huo” [The New Soviet Disaster], Xingshi zhoubao, no. 40 (1925), 1.

10. Luo Zebang, “Duiyu hu'an jinxing fangfa ji shanhou zhuzhang zhi guanjian” [Views on the Solution and Public Opinions about the May Thirtieth Incident], Xingshi zhoubao, no. 37 (1925), 4.

11. Yi Zu, “Xin E huo”, Xingshi zhoubao, no. 40 (1925), 1.

12. Zeng Jie, “Yige relie de aihu zuguozhe” [An Enthusiastic Patriot], Xingshi zhoubao, no. 43 (1925), 5.

13. “E gong(bu) zhongyang zhengzhiju huiyi di ershiyi hao jilu” [Soviet Union Central Political Bureau Council Records (No. 21, 1923)], in Gongchan guoji liangong(bu) yu zhongguo geming dangan ziliao congshu [Documents on Comintern, the Soviet Communist Party and Chinese Revolution], trans. Zhonggong zhongyang dangshi yanjiushi diyi yanjiubu, vol. 1, (Beijing: Beijing tushuguan chubanshe, 1997), 266.

14. “E gong(bu) zhongyang zhengzhiju huiyi di liushiba hao jilu”, [Soviet Union Central Political Bureau Council Records (No. 68, 1925)], in Gongchan guoji liangong(bu) yu zhongguo geming dangan ziliao congshu, vol. 1, 636–7.

15. Zeng Qi, “Wusa can'an zhi huigu” [Review the May 30 Massacre], Xingshi zhoubao, no. 85 (1926), 1.

16. Zeng Qi, “Shensheng lianhe yu yizhi duiwai” [Unite with Each Other Holily and Attack Outside Together], Xingshi zhoubao, no. 35 (1925), 1.

17. Zeng Qi, “Xu fandui chongcha hu'an zhi ge tuanti” [Encourage the Organizations Opposing Re‐investigating the May Thirtieth Incident], Xingshi zhoubao, no. 54 (1925), 1.

18. Xiao Chunu, “Xianweijing xia zhi xingshipai”[The Awakening Lion Clique under Microscope], in Zhongguo qingniandang [The Youth Party of China], ed. Li Yibin (Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue chubanshe, 1982), 26–9.

19. Chou Lunjie, “Dui su'e daibu huaren zhi ganxiang” [Views on Soviet Russia Arresting Overseas Chinese], Xingshi zhoubao, no. 45 (1925), 1–2.

20. Wuji, “Wusa canju hou Beijing zhi jiuguo yundong” [The Movements of Saving Nation in Beijing after the May 30 Massacre], Xingshi zhoubao, no. 48 (1925), 3.

21. “Gongqingtuan Beijing diwei xuanchuan gongzuo baogao” [A Report on Propagandistic Activities from the Beijing Branch of the Chinese Youth League” (1925)], in Diyici guogong hezuo zai Beijing [The First Collaboration in Beijing between the Communist Party of China and the Kuomintang], ed. Zhonggong Beijing shiwei dangshi yanjiushi (Beijing: Beijing chubanshe, 1989), 182.

22. Jian Bo, “Gongchandang zhixia de zhongguo Kuomintang Beijing shidangbu yu Beijing xuesheng lianhehui” [The Beijing Branch of the Kuomintang and the General Student Federation of Beijing under the Control of the Communist Party], Xingshi zhoubao, no. 45 (1925), 3–4.

23. Wuji, “Wusa canju hou Beijing zhi jiuguo yundong”, Xingshi zhoubao, no. 48 (1925), 3–4.

24. Qu Shizhuang, “Beijing xuechao fasheng zhi yuanyin yu jingguo” [Reasons and Course of the Campus Upheavals in Beijing], Xingshi zhoubao, no. 33 (1925), 3.

25. Qingniantuan Shanghai diwei, “Bannian lai Shanghai xuesheng yundong baogao” [A Report on Shanghai Student Movements in the Last Half Year], in Shanghai geming lishi wenjian huiji [A Documental Collection on the History of Shanghai Revolution: 1922.7–1927.1], eds. Zhongyang dang'anguan and Shanghaishi dang'anguan (Shanghai: publisher unknown, 1986), 374–5.

26. Li Guanqing, “Wusa yundong de yanjin” [Evolvement of the May Thirtieth Movement], Xingshi zhoubao, no. 85 (1926), 3.

27. Zeng Qi, “Duiyu Beijing guojia zhuyi tongzhi wei wusa jiangyan beibu ganyan” [Sentiments on the Nationalists' Being Arrested in Beijing Because of making speeches about the May Thirtieth Movement], Xingshi zhoubao, no. 86 (1926), 1.

28. Gen Sheng, “Wusa canan shibai de yuanyin” [Reasons for the Failure of the May Thirtieth Incident], Xingshi zhoubao, no. 85 (1926), 1.

29. Ding Wenjiang and Zhao Fengtian, eds., Liang Qichao nianpu changbian [Liang Qichao Biographical Chronology] (Shanghai: Shanghai renmin chubanshe, 1983), 1048.

30. Ji Zhe, “Eren Baoluoting ganshe zhongguo jiaoyu de dayinmou” [The Grand Plot of Russian Borodin Intervening in Chinese Education], Xingshi zhoubao, no. 60 (1925), 3.

31. Zhai Jian, “Waihuan shengzhong gongchandang cuican aiguopai zhi tiezheng” [The Hard Proofs of the Communists Destroying the Patriotic Clique during the Foreign Aggression], Xingshi zhoubao, no. 43 (1925), 2.

32. Lao Qiu, “Guojia zhuyi zhe de gongzhuang” [Confession of the Nationalists], Xingshi zhoubao, no. 179 (1928), 2.

33. Xiao Chunu, “Xianweijing xia zhi xingshipai”, 11.

34. Bao Pu, “Chi'e youji” [Travel Journal in Red Russia], Chenbao fukan [The Supplement of Morning Post], 8 September 1924.

35. Piao Ping, “Chenren su'e wu wenti” [No Problem to Admit Soviet Russia], Jingbao (The Beijing Post), February 18, 1924.

36. Hu Guowei, “Su'e diguo zhuyi yu ruoxiao minzu” [Soviet Imperialism and the Suppressed Nations], Xingshizhoubao, no. 71 (1926), 1.

37. See the letter to Li Liquan, Xingshi zhoubao, no. 54 (1925), 4.

38. Zhang Jin, “Bianzhe de jijuhua” [Words of Editor], in Lian'e yu chou'e wenti taolunji [A Controversy Collection on the Problem of “Allying with Russia or Hating Russia”], ed. Zhang Jin (Taipei: Wenhai chubanshe, 1982), 3.

39. Li Huang, “Dui'e wenti zhi wojian” [My Opinions on the Problem of Russia], Chenbao shehui zhoukan [The Social Weekly of Morning Post], no. 3 (1925).

40. Zhang Taiyan, “Women zuihou de zeren” [Our Last Duty], Xingshi zhoubao, no. 58 (1925), 1.

41. Chen Huangsheng, “Bo Zhang Xiruo bing gao qingnian pengyou” [Retort Zhang Xiruo and Awake the Youth], Jingbao fukan, no. 303 (1925).

42. Chang Daozhi, “Meiren duiyu hu'an zhi taidu” [America's Attitude toward the May Thirtieth Incident], Xingshi zhoubao, no. 50 (1925), 3.

43. Zuo Shunsheng, “Lun zhongguo zilai yilai waili zhi shibai” [The History of China's Failure in Relying on Foreigners], Xingshi zhoubao, no. 66 (1926), 2–3.

44. Zeng Jie, “Cong wusa jinian shuodao quanmin jiuguo” [In Memory of the May Thirtieth Incident and All People Saving the Nation], Xingshi zhoubao, no. 85 (1926), 1.

45. Si Wei, “Wusa tong'an yu heping zhuyi” [The May 30 Massacre and Pacificism], Xingshi zhoubao, no. 85 (1926), 2.

46. Xu Zhimo, “Liu Kanyuan xiansheng laijian qianyan” [Foreword for the Letter from Liu Kanyuan], Chenbao fukan, no. 1300 (1925).

47. Li Ao, “Hu Shi dui su'e kanfa de si jieduan” [The Four Periods of Hu Shi's Attitude toward Soviet Russia], vol. 3, in Li Ao quanji [Complete Works of Li Ao] (Taipei: Siji chubanshe, 1980), 276.

48. Qu Qiubai, “Zhongguo guomin geming yu Dai Jitao zhuyi” [Chinese National Revolution and Dai Jitao Doctrine], in Zhonggong zhongyang wenjian xuanji [A Collection of Documents of the Chinese Communist Party's Central Committee] vol. 1, ed. Zhongyang dang'anguan (Beijing: Zhongyang dangxiao chubanshe, 1982), 386.

49. Hao Sun, “Lian'e de taolun” [A Discussion on Alliance with Russia], Zhongguo guomindang zhoukan [The Kuomintang Weekly] 3, nos. 7–10 (1927), 9–10.

50. Ibid., 11–34.

51. Yan Wu, “Su'e ying huanwo de tudi” [Soviet Russia Should Give Us Back the Territory], Zhongguo guomindang zhoukan 3, nos. 7–10 (1927), 5–6.

52. Hu Guowei, “Qinshan zhuyi yu waijiao zhengce” [Amicability‐ism and Diplomatic Policy], Xingshi zhoubao, no. 27 (1925), 2.

53. Zeng Qi, “Gongchandang zhi meiwai zhuyi” [The Communists' Pro‐foreigner Policy], Xingshi zhoubao, no. 44 (1925), 1.

54. Chen Jun, “Lian'e yu pai'e pingyi” [Fair Opinions on Allying with Russia or Excluding Russia], Chenbao fukan, no. 1402 (1925).

55. “Gongqingtuan Beijing diwei xuanchuan gongzuo baogao”, in Diyici guogong hezuo zai Beijing, 183.

56. Qu Qiubai, “Zhongguo guomin geming yu Dai Jitao zhuyi”, 382.

57. Lao Qiu, “Guojia zhuyi zhe de gongzhuang”, Xingshi zhoubao, no. 179 (1928), 1–2.

58. Chen Qitian, “Zhongguo guojia zhuyi yundong de guoqu yu jianglai” [The Past and Future of Chinese Nationalist Movements], Xingshi zhoubao, no. 191 (1928), 6.

59. Li Huang, “Tantan women” [Talk about Us], Minsheng zhoubao [The People's Voice Weekly], no. 25 (1932), 4.

60. According to the materials offered by Chen Qitian, the organizations existed during the May Thirtieth Movement mainly included: Beijing: Guohun she [National Spirit Society], Jiuguo tuan [Save the Nation Corps]; Henan: Guanghua xuehui [Rejuvenate the Nation Institution]; Sichuan: Tishe [Ti Society], Qiwu she [Dance Society]; Hunan: Guzhong xuehui [Solidify China Institution]; Hubei: Guoduo she [National Bell Society]; Jiangsu: Guoguang she [National Light Society], Ziqiang tuan [Self‐strengthen Corps]; Shanghai: Shangjie qingnian tongzhi hui [The Young Comrade League of Merchants], Daxia qingnian tuan [Great China Youth Corps]; Zhejiang: Aiguo qingnian she [The Patriotic Society of Youth], Zhejiang qingnian she [Zhejiang Youth Society], Kangying jijin tuan [Resist England Corps]; Anhui: Anqing qingnian she [Anqing Youth Society]; Guangdong: Duyi she [The Only Society]; Yunnan: Fushe [Renew Society]; Janpan: Huahun she [Chinese Spirit Society], Jiangsheng she [The Yangtse Rive's Sound Society]; America: Dajiang hui [The Great River Association], Dashenzhou she [The Great China Association]; France: Gongren jiuguo tuan [Save the Nation Corps of Workers] and so on. Besides, the influential nationalist organization Guojia jiaoyu xiehui [The National Education Association] set up general association in Shanghai, and set up branches in Nanjing, Beijing, Wuchang, and America. These organizations all issued magazines or papers themselves. By October 1925, the foundation of the General Association of Nationalist Societies indicated nationalism had been in fashion in China. Chen Qitian, “Zhongguo guojia zhuyi yundong de guoqu yu jianglai”, Xingshi zhoubao, no. 191 (1928), 6.

61. Zeng Qi, “Cai Yuanpei yu Hu Hanmin zhi fan gongchan lun” [The Anti‐Communist Theory of Cai Yuanpei and Hu Hanmin], Xingshi zhoubao, no. 46 (1925), 1.

62. Wu Wenzao, “Minzu yu guojia”[Nation and State], in Wu Wenzao renleixue shehuixue yanjiu wenji [A Collection of Wu Wenzao's Works on Anthropology and Sociology], (Beijing: Minzu chubanshe, 1990), 19. The Awakening Lion Weekly published in October 1924, half a year later, issued more than 8,000 copies, sometimes reprinted or even printed thirdly, and by May 1925 issued more than 10,000 copies. Zuo Shunsheng, “Ji Zeng Muhan” [Record Zeng Muhan], in Zhongguo xiandai mingren yishi [Anecdotes on the Celebrities of Modern China] (Hong Kong: Jiulong chubanshe, 1954), 97–9. By the spring of 1927 the members of the Communist Party and the Youth League were 90,000 or so, and the Youth Party claimed that the people who had joined the nationalist organizations or influenced by nationalism were at least 100,000. Wang Qisheng, “Geming yu fangeming: yijiu erling niandai Zhongguo sanda zhengdang de dangji hudong” [Revolution and Counter‐revolution: Interactions among Three Leading Chinese Political Parties in the 1920s], in Lishi yanjiu [Historical Research], no. 5 (2004): 98.

63. Qu Qiubai, “Guomin geming yundong zhong zhi jieji fenhua” [Class Differentiations in the National Revolution Movement], Xinqingnian [New Youth], no. 3 (1926), 31.

64. Guomin gemingjun zong silingbu, “Fan guojia zhuyi xuanchuan dagang” [The Propagandistic Outline of Anti‐nationalism], in Zhongguo qingniandong [The Youth Party of China], ed. Li Yibin. (Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue chubanshe, 1982), 56–57.

65. Chun Sheng, “Xingshipai – zui fandong shili de jiejing” [The Awakening Lion Clique – the Most Reactionary Force], in Zhongguo qingnian [Chinese Youth], no. 97 (1925), 707.

66. Zuo Shunsheng, “Ji Zeng Muhan”, 97–9.