Interpreting “democracy” in modern China

Abstract

From around the time of the Opium War to the May Fourth New Culture Movement, democracy in China advanced through four stages. Originally it surfaced as a germ of rough ideas gleaned from imported knowledge; from there, democracy transpired gradually via various avenues towards a more sophisticated level in the period from the Second Opium War until before the Sino–Japanese War of 1894–1895 and meanwhile a number of individuals favoring utilitarianism opted for a constitutional monarchy as a way of making the nation strong. Then, following the Sino–Japanese War 1894–1895 until prior to the 1911 Revolution, when manifold Western ideas of democracy penetrated China, people embarked on somber discussions about what kind of democratic system China actually needed to adopt. During the years between 1912 and the May Fourth New Culture Movement, people initially rushed to build democratic politics but afterwards began to examine the ideologies and social structures that demonstrated compatibility with democracy. By the time the May Fourth Movement emerged, people hardly disagreed on the sense of democracy that they understood. After the May Fourth Movement people mainly focused their attention on the question of true and false democracy or the matter of what type of democracy harmonized best with national conditions in China.

Keywords:

• democracy
• civic rights
• liberty
• equality

Notes

¹ Guo Songtao, Guo Songtao riji [The Diary of Guo Songtao], vol. 3 (Changsha: Hunan renmin chubanshe, 1982), 535.

² William A.P. Martin, ed., Gongfa bianlan [Introduction to the Study of International Law], trans. Wang Fengzao et al. (Beijing: Tongwenguan, 1877).

³ Jiang Youxian, “Liangguang zongdu Jiang Youxian zoubao mei yapianchuan beiqiang xianliang yushangxu bing xiaoyu yanjin pian” [The Memorial Viceroy of the Guangdong and Guangxi Provinces Jiang Youxian Presented to the Throne in Regards to the Matter of Properly Compensating for the Loss of Robbed American Opium Transport Vessel and Giving Explicit Instructions on Strict Ban of Opium], in Yapian zhanzheng dang'an shiliao [The Archives of the Opium War], ed. Zhongguo diyi lishi dang'an guan [First Historical Archives of China], vol. 1 (Shanghai: Shanghai renmin chubanshe, 1987), 20.

⁴ Walter Henry Medhurst, Dili biantong luezhuan [A Concise Juvenile Pocket Guide to Geography and Biography] (Malacca, 1819), 17.

⁵ Ibid., 9–10.

⁶ Karl Friedrich August Gutzlaff, Daying guo tong zhi [A History of England] (Singapore, 1834), 6–8.

⁷ “Bei yamolijia ban guozhengzhihui” [Congress in North America], Dongxiyangkao meiyuetongji zhuan [Eastern Western Monthly Magazine], 1838. See the facsimile Dongxiyangkao meiyuetongji zhuan (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1997), 389.

⁸ Ibid.

⁹ Liang Tingnan, preface to “Heshengguo shuo” [Commentary on the United States of America], in Haiguo sishuo [Four Commentaries on Maritime Nations] (1844 wood-block print, repr., Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1993), 50.

¹⁰ Ibid.

¹¹ Wei Yuan, Haiguo tuzhi [Illustrated Records of the Maritime Nations], 100 vols., vol. 59 (Pingqing jinggu daoshu, 1876).

¹² Xu Jiyu, Yinghuan kaolue [Brief Survey of the World], vol. 2 (manuscript facsimile by Taipei: Taiwan Wen-hai chubanshe, 1974), 210. Sheng and Guang refer to Chen Sheng and Wu Guang. Cao and Liu refer to Cao Cao and Liu Bei.

¹³ Xu Jiyu, Yinghuan zhilue [Brief Account of the World], vol. 9, Bei yamolijia milijian hezhongguo [The United States of America in North America] (Shanghai: Shanghai shudian chubanshe, 2001), 291.

¹⁴ Jiang Dunfu, “Yingzhi zixu” [Preface to the History of England], in Xiaogutang wenji [Collected Essays of Xiaogutang], vol. 7 (Reign of Emperor Tongzhi block print, 1871), 5.

¹⁵ Song Yuren, Caifengji [The Records of Observations on Folkways] (Xiuhai shanfang lithographic print, 1895), 11.

¹⁶ Ibid.

¹⁷ Xu Jianyin, “Deguo yiyuan zhangcheng xu” [Preface to the Rules and Regulations for German Parliament], in Xizheng congshu [Western Governments Series], vol. 4 (Shanghai: Shenji shuzhuang lithographic print, 1897).

¹⁸ Ma Jianzhong, “Shang Liboxiang yan chuyanggongke shu” [Memorial to Premier Viscount Li on the Matter of Students Sent Abroad], in Yangwu yundong [The Westernization Movement], ed. Association of Chinese Historians, vol. 1 (Shanghai: Shanghai renmin chubanshe, 2000), 164.

¹⁹ Zheng Guanying, “Lun yizheng” [On Discussing Affairs of Government], in Yiyan [Random Opinions], vol. 1 (Guankeshouzhai block print, 1887), 45.

²⁰ Zhang Shusheng, “Yizhe” [Testimony Memorial to the Throne], in Zhang jingdagong zouyi [Memorials to the Throne by Honorable and Wise Lord Zhang], vol. 8 (Reign of Emperor Guangxu block print, 1899).

²¹ Zheng Guanying, “Shengshi weiyan—yiyuan shang” [The Warning in the Times of Peace and Prosperity: On Parliament, Part I], in Zheng Guanying ji [Collected Works of Zheng Guanying], ed. Xia Dongyuan, vol. 1 (Shanghai: Shanghai renmin chubanshe, 1982), 314.

²² Chen Chi, preface to “Shengshi weiyan”, in Zheng Guanying ji, vol. 1, 231.

²³ Liang Qichao, “Yu Yan Youling xiansheng shu” [Letter to Mr. Yan Youling], in Yinbingshi wenji [Collected Works of Yinbingshi], vol. 1 (Shanghai: Zhonghua shuju, 1936), 109.

²⁵ Fan Zhui, Fagu [Do Away with Malpractice], in Xiangbao leizuan, section A, part 1 (1902), 38.

²⁴ Fan Zhui, Kaichengpian [On Truth], part 3, in Xiangbao leizuan [Collected Miscellaneous Essays of the Hunan Daily], section A, part 1 (1902), 37.

²⁶ Pi Jiayou, “Pingdeng shuo” [On Equality], Xiangbao [Hunan Daily], no. 60, 1898.

²⁷ He Qi and Hu Liyuan, “Xinzheng biantong” [Accommodations of the New Government], in Xinzheng zhenquan [A Conclusive Commentary on New Politics], vol. 6 (Gezhi xinbaoguan, 1900), 10.

²⁸ Yan Fu, “Yuanqiang” [The Origins of Power], in Yan Fu ji [The Collected Works of Yan Fu], ed. Wang Shi, vol. 1 (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1986), 11.

²⁹ He Qi and Hu Liyuan, “Quanxuepian shuhou” [A Post-Rebuttal to Advice on Learning], in Xinzheng zhenquan, vol. 5, 52.

³⁰ Ibid., 51.

³¹ Ibid., 50.

³² Ibid., 51.

³³ Ibid., 48.