The basic structure of Chiang Kai-shek's diplomatic strategy

Abstract

As a leader of the Republic of China, Chiang Kai-shek carried on Sun Yat-sen's legacy of using diplomacy as a force in the modern era and planned to rely on diplomacy to revise China's unequal treaties with foreign powers. Chiang elaborated on Sun's ideas and maintained that diplomacy as a war without battles worked more effectively than wars with battles. Faced with the threat of Japanese invasion, he upheld the strategy of using one foreign country to control another. He expected the outbreak of a war between Japan and the Soviet Union or between Japan and the United States so that a war between Japan and China could be avoided. Chiang engaged in active diplomacy aimed at turning these expectations into reality. His diplomatic strategy had an impact during the Anti-Japanese War.

Keywords:

• Chiang Kai-shek
• Sun Yat-sen
• Mao Zedong
• diplomatic strategy
• the Anti-Japanese War

Notes

¹ Kawashima Shin, ed., Chuugoku no gaiko-jikoninshiki to kadai [China's Diplomacy – My Own Interpretation and Topics] (Tokyo: Yamakawa Shuppansha, 2007), 16.

² “Hypo-colony” is a term coined by Sun Yat-sen. He defined “hypo-colony” as an “incomplete and nongenuine colony,” which “has a status lower than that of the genuine colony.” In Sun Yat-sen's Sanmin zhuyi [Three Principles of the People] (Taipei: China Cultural Service Co., Ltd, 1991), 23.

³ Chiang Kai-shek, “Diyu waiwu yu fuxing minzu (shang)” [Resistance of Foreign Aggression and National Revival, part 1], in Zongtong Jianggong sixiang yanlun zongji [Collection of Speeches and Thoughts of President Chiang Kai-shek], vol. 12, ed. Qin Xiaoyi (Taipei: Zhongguo guomindang zhongyang weiyuanhui dangshi weiyuanhui, 1984), 304.

⁴ Mao Zedong, “Xingxing zhihuo keyi liaoyuan” [A Single Spark can Start a Prairie Fire], in Mao Zedong xuanji [Selected Works of Mao Zedong], vol. 1 (Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, 1966), 94.

⁵ Sun Yat-sen, “Guoshi yizhu” [Will on National Matters], Chenbao [Morning News] (Beijing), 14 March 1925.

⁶ Sun Yat-sen, “Sun Zhongshan dui shiju zhi xuanyan” [Sun Yat-sen's Declaration on the Current Situation], Shenbao, 18 November 1924.

⁷ Chiang Kai-shek, “Duiwai guanxi (24 nian 11 yue 19 ri zai wuquan dahui jiangyan)” [Foreign Relations (Speech at the Fifth General Conference on 19 November 1935], in Jiang weiyuanzhang yanlun leibian: zhengzhi jianshe yanlun ji [Categorized Collection of Generalissimo Chiang: Talks about Political Construction], ed. Zhongyang xuanchuanbu [Central Department of Propaganda] (Chongqing: Zhengzhong shuju, 1938), 223.

⁸ In his diary on 24 June 1945, Chiang wrote that regarding the unsolved problem of Outer Mongolia, China should “allow it a high degree of autonomy and subsequently establish suzerain rule there.” The term suzerainty (zongzhuquan) was used again in his discussions about Korea, Ryukyu, Vietnam, and Burma after 1945. Chiang Kai-shek Diaries, the Archives of the Hoover Institution, Stanford University.

⁹ Ibid., 21 September 1931.

¹⁰ “Zhongyang Jinling Fudan sanxiao xuesheng zuochen maoyu shiyuan” [Students from the Three Universities of Zhongyang, Jinling, and Fudan Demonstrated in Rain Last Morning], Zhongyang ribao [Central Daily], 29 September 1931.

¹¹ Wang Yugao, ed., Jiang Zhongzheng zongtong dang'an: Shilue gaoben [The Chiang Kai-shek Collection: The Chronological Events], vol. 12 (Taipei: Academia Historica, 2004), 111. Hereafter referred to as Shilue gaoben.

¹² “Jiang Zhongzheng dianling ji dadianhua qing Luo Wengan Gu Weijun yu bashi dao waijiao weiyuanhui” [Chiang Kai-shek Telephonic Order to Luo Wengan and V.K. Wellington Koo to Attend the Committee of Diplomacy at Eight O'clock], Jiang Zhongzheng zongtong wenwu [Papers of President Chiang Kai-shek], file no. 002010200061046, Academia Historica, Taipei.

¹³ “Gu Weijun zuo feilai Nanjing” [V.K. Wellington Koo Flew to Nanjing Yesterday], Huabei ribao [North China Daily], 2 October 1931.

¹⁴ Wang Yugao, Shilue gaoben, vol. 12, 122.

¹⁵ “Gesheng shuizai zhuangkuang” [Flood Conditions in Various Provinces], Zhongyang ribao, 5 August 1931.

¹⁶ “Qieshi shuizai jiuji guofu teshe shuizai weihui” [Carrying out Flood Relief: Nationalist Government Forms Commission for Flood Relief], Zhongyang ribao, 15 August 1931.

¹⁷ “Guofu jiuji jingguo” [Process of Government-Led Relief Operations], Zhongyang ribao, 20 August 1931.

¹⁸ “Faxing zhenzai gongzhai yiqianwan yuan” [Issuing Ten Million Yuan of Government Bonds], Zhongyang ribao, 22 August 1931.

¹⁹ “Mei jiuji woguo shuizai” [US Aid to Relieve China's Flood], Zhongyang ribao, 23 August 1931.

²⁰ “Zhenzai gongzhai baqianwan yuan” [Eighty Million Yuan of Government Bonds Goes to Flood Relief], Zhongyang ribao, 27 August 1931.

²¹ “Jiang zhuxi dihan shicha zaiqing” [President Chiang Arrives at Wuhan to Inspect Flood Conditions], Zhongyang ribao, 30 August 1931.

²² Chiang Kai-shek, “Duonan xingbang quanzai gongtong nuli” [Reviving the Nation in an Unfortunate Time Depends on All Working Hard Together], Zhongyang zhoubao [Central Weekly], no. 171, 14 September 1931, 2–3.

²³ Chiang Kai-shek Diaries, 14 September 1931.

²⁴ “Guolian yijue jiuji huazai” [League of Nations Decides to Aid China's Flood], Zhongyang ribao, 18 September 1929.

²⁵ “Woguo dangxuan guolian feichangren lishi” [China Elected Nonpermanent Member of League of Nations], Zhongyang ribao, 16 September 1929.

²⁶ Chiang Kai-shek Diaries, 19 September 1931.

²⁷ “Rishi Chongguang chengdi guoshu” [Japanese Ambassador Shigemitsu Delivers Government Correspondence], Zhongyang zhoubao, no. 172, 21 September 1931, 9.

²⁸ Chiang Kai-shek Diaries, 14 September 1931.

²⁹ Chiang Kai-shek, “Dourannonamini tadayofu shina oyobi nihon (choukaiseki tokubetu kikoubun)” [China and Japan Floating on the Waves of Turbulence (Special Collection of Chiang Kai-shek's Manuscripts)], Chuo Koron, vol. 48, no. 8 (August 1933). This was Chiang's talk to the Chuo Koron journalist.

³⁰ “Ri chaoye liangdang difang xuanju jingzheng jilie” [Competition Is Keen between the Two Political Parties in the Local Election in Japan], Huabei ribao, 8 September 1931.

³¹ Tamai Kiyoshi, “Seiyukai no Taigaikyokouron” [Hardline Diplomacy of the Seiyukai], in Manshujihen no shougeki [The Impact of the Manchurian Incident], ed. Nakamura Katsunori (Tokyo: Keiso Shobo, 1996), 36–41.

³² “Riben gejie nuli mujuan” [All Elements of Society in Japan Try Hard to Raise Funds for China's Relief], Huabei ribao, 6 September 1931.

³³ “Rihuo zhi youlai yu zhongguo yingqu zhi fangzhen” [Origins of the Problems with Japan and the Response China Ought to Take], Huabei ribao, 10 September 1931.

³⁴ Chiang Kai-shek, “Yizhi fenqi gongjiu weiwang” [Rise Together to Redemption from Crisis and Death], Zhongyang zhoubao, no. 173 (28 September 1931), 1.

³⁵ “Gu Weijun shuli waijiao buzhang” [V.K. Wellington Koo Appointed Foreign Minister], Zhongyang zhoubao, no. 183 (7 December 1931), 19.

³⁶ Nishimura Kumao, “Shina to Kokusairenmei” [China and the League of Nations], in Azia mondai kouza [Lectures on Asia's Issues], vol. 1 (Tokyo: Sogensha, 1939), 390.

³⁷ Ibid.

³⁸ “Waijiao wei wuxing zhi zhanzheng (Ershinian shiyiyue sanshiri zai waizhang Gu Weijun juxing xuanshi jiuzhi shi jiangyan)” [Diplomacy is a War without Battles (Speech at the Ceremony where V.K. Wellington Koo was Sworn in as Foreign Minister on 30 November 1931], in Jiang weiyuanzhang yanlun leibian: zhengzhi jianshe yanlun ji, 74–75.

³⁹ Mao Zedong, “Lun chijiuzhan” [On Protracted War], in Mao Zedong xuanji, vol. 2 (Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, 1968), 411, 430–31.

⁴⁰ Mao Zedong, “Kangri youji zhanzheng de zhanlue wenti” [Problems of Strategy in the Anti-Japanese Guerrilla War], in Mao Zedong xuanji, vol. 2, 379.

⁴¹ Kangzhan junshixue yanjiuhui [Institute of Military Research on the Anti-Japanese War], ed., Jiang weiyuanzhang de zhanlue yu zhanshu [Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek's Strategy and Tactics], vol. 1 (Guangzhou: Shengli chubanshe, 1938), 15.

⁴² Ibid., 24.

⁴³ Chiang Kai-shek Diaries, 26 January 1935.

⁴⁴ For details, see Huang Zijin, “‘Annei rangwai’ de ling yizhang: Jiang Jieshi dui ‘risuxianzhan’ de qipan” [Another Chapter in “Pacifying Internal Turmoil before Resisting Foreign Invasions”: Chiang Kai-shek's Expectation of “a War out-breaking first between Japan and the Soviet Union”], in Jiang Zhongzheng yu jindai zhongri guanxi [Chiang Kai-shek and Modern Sino–Japanese Relations], ed. Huang Zijin (Taipei: Daw Shiang Publishing Co., Ltd., 2006), 132–35.

⁴⁵ Chiang Kai-shek, “Zhongguo zhi waijiao zhengce” [China's Foreign Policy], “Jinhou gaijin zhengzhi de luxian” [The Line for Future Political Improvement], “Diyu waiwu yu fuxing minzu” [Resisting Foreign Aggression and Reviving Our Nation], in Zongtong Jianggong sixiang yanlun zongji, vol. 12, 101–105, 125–37, 302–49.

⁴⁶ Chiang Kai-shek Diaries, 7, 10, 17 February 1934.

⁴⁷ Chiang Kai-shek Diaries, 26 February 1934.

⁴⁸ Chiang Kai-shek, “Diyu waiwu yu fuxing minzu”, 305.

⁴⁹ Chiang Kai-shek, “Zhongguo zhi waijiao zhengce,” 102.

⁵⁰ Chiang Kai-shek Diaries, 1917, “Minguo yuannian xiang” [The Entry on the First Year of the Republic of China]. In this part of his 1917 diary, he recorded from memory the events of 1912.

⁵¹ Jiang Jieshi zong siling jiangyan ci (siyue shibari Nanjing zongbu) [Speeches of Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek (Nanjing headquarters, April 18)], information of publication is unknown, 4–7.

⁵² “Jiang Jieshi zalu” [Assorted Records about Chiang Kai-shek], the Archives of Hoover Institution, Stanford University.

⁵³ Chiang Kai-shek Diaries, 24 September 1923.

⁵⁴ Chiang Kai-shek Diaries, 25 November 1923.

⁵⁵ “Kai-shek's Third Letter (sent on 12 September 1923),” in Chiang Kai-shek's Secret Past: The Memoir of His Second Wife Ch'en Chieh-ju, Ch'en Chieh-ju, et al., ed. Lloyd E. Eastman (Colorado: Westview Press, 1993), 131–32.

⁵⁶ “Kai-shek's Fourth Letter (sent on 20 September 1923),” ibid., 228–29.

⁵⁷ Chiang Kai-shek, Chugoku no nakano Soren [China and the Soviet Union], trans. Mainichi Shinbun gaishinbu (Tokyo: Mainichi Shinbun, 1958), 18–19.

⁵⁸ Chiang Kai-shek Diaries, 10 October and 26 November 1923. The content of the first speech is recorded in detail in Hollington K. Tong, Chiang Kai-shek: Soldier and Statesman, vol. 1 (London: Hurst & Blackett, 1938), 74–76. The content of the second speech can be found in “Meeting of Executive Committee of ECCI, 26 November 1923,” part of the unpublished interpretation records by Wang Dengyun, a member of Chiang's entourage. This source is preserved at the Japanese television company NHK.

⁵⁹ “Kai-shek's Fifth Letter (sent on 20 November 1923),” in Chiang Kai-shek's Secret Past, 231.

⁶⁰ “Meeting of Executive Committee of ECCI, November 26th 1923.”

⁶¹ Chiang Kai-shek, Chugoku no nakano Soren, 20.

⁶² Chiang Kai-chek, “Diyu waiwu yu fuxing minzu”, 305.

⁶³ Chiang Kai-shek, “Mei ying su he zhong wuguo gongtong zuozhan fanglue” [The War Strategy of the Alliance of the US, Britain, the Soviet Union, Holland, and China], 20 December 1941, Jiang Zhongzheng zongtong wenwu, file number: 00202030006024, Academia Historica, Taipei.

⁶⁴ Zhu De, “Lun jiefangqu zhanchang” [The Battle Front in the Liberated Areas], Jiefang ribao [Liberation Daily], 9 May 1945.

⁶⁵ Chiang Kai-shek Diaries, “Minguo yuannian xiang”, 1917.

⁶⁶ He officially assumed the position on 13 December 1930. H.H. Kung, vice president of the Executive Yuan, acted as president from January 1938 to November 1939. Zhang Pengyuan and Shen Huaiyu, eds., “Guomin zhengfu zhiguan nianbiao (1925–1949)” [Chronicle of Government Officials of the Nationalist Government (1925–1949)], in Zhongyang yanjiuyuan jindaishi yanjiusuo shiliao congkan [Collection of Historical Materials, Institute of Modern History, Academia Sinica], no. 6 (Taipei: Zhongyang yanjiuyuan jindaishi yanjiusuo, 1987), 52, 62, 66.

⁶⁷ Takahashi Hisashi, “Ouseiei” [Wang Jingwei], in Kindai chuugoku jinmei jiten [Dictionary of Eminent Individuals in Modern China] ed. Yamada Tatsuo (Tokyo: Kazan-kai, 1995), 821.

⁶⁸ Chiang Kai-shek Diaries, “Minguo yuannian xiang”, 1917.

⁶⁹ Tokyo Asahi Shinbun [Tokyo Daily News], 16 April 1927.

⁷⁰ “Nanjing zhengfu zhengshi chengli” [Official Founding of the Nanjing Government], Chenbao, 21 April 1927.

⁷¹ Iechika Ryoko, Shoukaiseki to nankinkokuminseifu [Chiang Kai-shek and the Nanjing Nationalist Government] (Tokyo: Keio University Publishing Co., 2002), 92.

⁷² “Nanjing zhengfu zhengshi chengli”, Chenbao, 21 April 1927.

⁷³ Iechika Ryoko, Shoukaiseki to nankinkokuminseifu, 98.

⁷⁴ Ibid., 103.

⁷⁵ “Kokuminseifu shin jiyou” [The New Cabinet of the Nationalist Government], Tokyo Asahi Shinbun, 27 April 1927.

⁷⁶ Tachibana Shiraki, Chuuka minkoku sanjuunen shi [Thirty-Year History of the Republic of China] (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1943), 148.

⁷⁷ Hankou minguo ribao [Hankou Republican Daily], 3–8 August 1927.

⁷⁸ “Junshi weiyuanhui zongzhengzhibu tao Jiang xuanchuan dagang” [General Outline for Anti-Chiang Movement by the General Political Ministry of the Central Military Commission], Hankou minguo ribao, 1 August 1927.

⁷⁹ “Zhengyuan xinren sibuzhang luli” [Resumes of the Four New Ministers in the Executive Yuan], Zhongyang ribao, 13 December 1935.

⁸⁰ Zhang Xianwen, Fang Qingqiu, and Huang Meizhen, eds., Zhonghua minguoshi dacidian [A Dictionary of Republican Chinese History] (Nanjing: Jiangsu guji chubanshe, 2001), 1080.

⁸¹ In 1938, Chen became ambassador to Germany and, under Chiang's direction, began negotiations with Germany. See Xu Youchun, ed., Minguo renwu dacidian (zengdingban) [Encyclopedia of Eminent Individuals of the Republic of China (Added Edition)] (Shijiazhuang: Hebei renmin chubanshe, 2007), 1359.

⁸² “Geshengfu bushe waijiao ke” [No Foreign Office Established at the Provincial Level], Zhongyang ribao, 12 December 1935.

⁸³ Qin Xiaoyi, ed., Zhongguo xiandaishi cidian: Renwu bufen [Encyclopedia of Contemporary History of China: Section on Eminent Individuals] (Taipei: Jindai zhongguo chubanshe, 1985), 39.

⁸⁴ “Wang Chonghui fabiao tanhua, jinye zhongshuhou jiuzhi” [Wang Chonghui Gives Talk and Takes Office after Paying Tribute to the Head of Government], Qingbai bao [Blue and White Newspaper], 4 March 1937.