Tricky business: Swiss perceptions of informal imperialism in China in the 1920s

Abstract

This article analyzes the role that commercial interests played in Swiss perceptions of informal imperialism in China during the 1920s. Commercial interests were the driving force behind the establishment of Swiss relations with China in 1918 and Swiss rejections of Chinese demands to abolish extraterritoriality in the 1920s. Swiss commercial relations with China were deeply rooted in the social, economic, and political institutions and processes developed by informal imperialism in China. During the Chinese antiforeign agitation in the 1920s, the Swiss press criticized the unequal treaties as an example of imperialism in China but ignored Switzerland’s participation in it. This discrepancy between the official and media perceptions of Swiss commercial interests in China was caused by the fact that Switzerland’s dependence on privileges connected to the unequal treaties clashed with Swiss national mythology, which was based on neutrality and anti-imperial narratives. Moreover, the negligible importance attributed to Swiss trade with China and the increasing focus on the nationality of foreign companies in China allowed the Swiss media to ignore Swiss commercial interests in China. As a result, Swiss complicity in informal imperialism was downplayed by the Swiss press, which ignored the importance of Swiss commerce to Sino–Swiss relations.

Keywords:

• unequal treaties
• China
• Switzerland
• extraterritoriality
• informal imperialism
• press
• commercial interests

Notes

¹ Neue Zürcher Zeitung (hereafter NZZ), June 7, 1925.

² NZZ, June 21, 1925.

³ NZZ, June 21, 1925.

⁴ Knüsel, Framing China, 117–125.

⁵ Gallagher and Robinson, “Imperialism of Free Trade,” 1–15. For critics of Robinson and Gallagher, see Louis, Imperialism.

⁶ There is no agreement about the definition of the term “unequal treaties” or the specific number of unequal treaties that were made between China and the foreign powers. See Wang, “Discourse of Unequal Treaties,” 400–402, 418–419; Fung, “Chinese Nationalists,” 795–798; Osterhammel, “Semi-Colonialism and Informal Empire,” 290–314; and Mclean, “Finance and ‘Informal Empire,’” 291–305.

⁷ Fung, “Chinese Nationalists”; Murdock, “Exploiting Anti-Imperialism,” 65–95; Kirby, “The Internationalization of China,” 433–458; Wang, “Discourse of Unequal Treaties”; Zhou, Exterritorialitätsrechte; Rigby, May 30 Movement; Ku, “Urban Mass Movement,” 197–216; Osterhammel, Shanghai; Ristaino, China’s Art of Revolution; Leutner et al., The Chinese Revolution; Wilbur, The Nationalist Revolution; Goto-Shibata, Japan and Britain; and Clifford, Spoilt Children of Empire.

⁸ Fung, “Chinese Nationalists,” 808–809.

⁹ Müller, “Einleitung,” 333; Schmid, Wirtschaft, 83–85; and Witschi, Schweizer auf imperialistischen Pfaden, 188–192.

¹⁰ Max Huber, “Bericht über die Möglichkeit der Förderung schweizerischen Exports nach China,” November 1901, Feder Archives, Berne, Switzerland (hereafter BAR) E 2001 A 1000/45 978; “Schreiben des Handelsdepartements an den Bundesrat,” December 6, 1911, BAR E 2001 A 1000/45 1350; “Auszug aus dem Protokoll der Sitzung des Schweizerischen Bundesrates,” July 10, 1914, BAR E 2001 A 1000/45; Journal de Genève, February 4, 1912; and Berner Intelligenzblatt, December 21, 1911. See also: Zhou, Exterritorialitätsrechte, 49–50; and Steinmann, Seldwyla im Wunderland, 72–73.

¹¹ “Protokoll der Sitzung des Schweizerischen Bundesrates”, January 20, 1914, BAR E 2001A 1000/45 1055; “Auszug aus dem Protokoll der Sitzung des Schweizerischen Bundesrates”, July 10, 1914, BAR E 2001 A 1000/45 1350. See also: Zhou, Exterritorialitätsrechte, 81–97.

¹² “Der Chef der Abteilung für Auswärtiges des Politischen Departementes, P. Dinichert, an den schweizerischen Geschäftsträger in Washington, Gesandtschaftssekretär A. Girardet,” August 12, 1925, in Commission nationale pour la publication de Documents Diplomatiques Suisses, 80–81.

¹³ Zhou, Exterritorialitätsrechte, 105–106.

¹⁴ Osterhammel, Shanghai, 115.

¹⁵ “Der Verweser des schweizerischen Generalkonsulates in Shanghai, F. Kästli, an den Chef der Abteilung für Auswärtiges des Politischen Departementes, P. Dinichert,” August 4, 1925, BAR E 2001 (C) 1/18, Commission nationale pour la publication de Documents Diplomatiques Suisses, 121–122. See also: Fung, “Chinese Nationalists”; Buckley, The United States; Wright, “The Washington Conference”; and Miller, Populist Nationalism, 109–110, 127–139.

¹⁶ “Der Verweser des schweizerischen Generalkonsulates in Shanghai, F. Kästli, an den Chef der Abteilung für Auswärtiges des Politischen Departementes, P. Dinichert,” August 4, 1925, Commission nationale pour la publication de Documents Diplomatiques Suisses, 121–122. See also Zhou, Exterritorialitätsrechte, 118, 126–129.

¹⁷ “Der Chef der Abteilung für Auswärtiges des Politischen Departementes, P. Dinichert, an den schweizerischen Gesandten in Paris, A. Dunant,” March 13, 1925, Commission nationale pour la publication de Documents Diplomatiques Suisse, 25–27.

¹⁸ “Der schweizerische Gesandte in Paris, A. Dunant, an den Vorsteher des Politischen Departementes, G. Motta,” March 17, 1925, BAR E 2001 (B) 6/5, Commission nationale pour la publication de Documents Diplomatiques Suisses, 30.

¹⁹ “Der Chef der Abteilung für Auswärtiges des Politischen Departementes, P. Dinichert, an den schweizerischen Gesandten in Paris, A. Dunant,” March 13, 1925, Commission nationale pour la publication de Documents Diplomatiques Suisses, 25–27; and “Der chinesische Gesandte in Bern, Tsent-Tsiang Lou, an den Vorsteher des Politischen Departementes, G. Motta,” February 7, 1925, Commission nationale pour la publication de Documents Diplomatiques Suisses, 12–13.

²⁰ “Der schweizerische Gesandte in Paris, A. Dunant, an den Vorsteher des Politischen Departementes, G. Motta,” March 17, 1925, BAR E 2001 (B) 6/5, Commission nationale pour la publication de Documents Diplomatiques Suisses, 30; and “Der Chef der Abteilung für Auswärtiges des Politischen Departementes, P. Dinichert, an den schweizerischen Generalkonsul in Shanghai, J. L. Isler,” April 28, 1925, Commission nationale pour la publication de Documents Diplomatiques Suisses, 50–51.

²¹ “Der schweizerische Generalkonsul in Shanghai, J. L. Isler, an den Chef der Abteilung für Auswärtiges des Politischen Departementes, P. Dinichert,” July 14, 1925, Commission nationale pour la publication de Documents Diplomatiques Suisses, 104–106.

²² Ibid.

²³ Müller, “Einleitung,” 322–323.

²⁴ Data taken from: Eidgenössische Oberzolldirektion, Statistik des Warenverkehrs 1919; Eidgenössische Oberzolldirektion, Statistik des Warenverkehrs 1920; Eidgenössische Oberzolldirektion, Statistik des Warenverkehrs 1921; Eidgenössische Oberzolldirektion, Statistik des Warenverkehrs 1922; Eidgenössische Oberzolldirektion, Statistik des Warenverkehrs 1923; Eidgenössische Oberzolldirektion, Statistik des Warenverkehrs 1924; Eidgenössische Oberzolldirektion, Statistik des Warenverkehrs 1925; Eidgenössische Oberzolldirektion, Statistik des Warenverkehrs 1926; Eidgenössische Oberzolldirektion, Statistik des Warenverkehrs 1927.

²⁵ For Orientalism see Said, Orientalism.

²⁶ Kästli, “Zur wirtschaftlichen Erschliessung Chinas. (Organisation und Technik des Imports nach China),” June E 1923, BAR E 2300 1000/716_431 (quote); Kästli, untitled report, January 22, 1923, BAR E 2300 1000/716_431; Kästli, “Zur Wirtschaftlichen Erschliessung Chinas. (Die Waehrungsverhaeltnisse in China),” February 1923, BAR E 2300 1000/716_431; Kästli, “Zur wirtschaftlichen Erschliessung Chinas. (Die Finanzlage der Chinesischen Republik),” March 1923, BAR E 2300 1000/716_431; Kästli, “Zur wirtschaftlichen Erschliessung Chinas. Der Uhrenmarkt in China,” April 1923, BAR E 2300 1000/716_431; Kästli, “Zur Wirtschaftlichen Erschliessung Chinas. (Organisation und Technik des Imports nach China),” undated (1923), BAR E 2300 1000/716_431; and Kästli, “Zur Wirtschaftlichen Erschliessung Chinas. (Organisation und Technik des Imports nach China),” December 1923, BAR E 2300 1000/716_431.

²⁷ Swiss Consulate Shanghai, Bulletins from April 1923, October 1923, and March 1924 (quote), BAR E 2300 1000/716_431.

²⁸ Kästli, “Vertraulicher Bericht ueber die politischen, militaerischen und wirtschaftlichen Zustaende in der Republik China waehrend des Buergerkrieges 1924,” September 1924, BAR E 2300 1000/716_431.

²⁹ “ECCI Resolution on the Relations between the Chinese Communist Party and the Kuomintang,” in Degras, The Communist International, 5–6. See also: Wang, “Discourse of Unequal Treaties”; Elleman, “Soviet Diplomacy,” 450–480; Murdock, “Exploiting Anti-Imperialism,” 69–88; Fung, “Chinese Nationalists,” 799–800; Luk, Origins of Chinese Bolshevism; and Wilbur, The Nationalist Revolution, 5–14.

³⁰ Documents on the Shanghai Case; “Report on the Hong Kong–Canton Strike, March 1926,” in Wilbur and How, Missionaries of Revolution, 594–596; Woodhead, China Year Book 1926–7, 268; and Woodhead, China Yearbook 1928, 942–951, 965. See also: Murdock, “Exploiting Anti-Imperialism”; Goto-Shibata, Japan and Britain, 5 and 13–14; Rigby, The May 30 Movement; Ku, “Urban Mass Movement,” 197–203, 207; Osterhammel, Shanghai, 12–18; Wilbur, The Nationalist Revolution, 21–23; and Clifford, Spoilt Children of Empire, 9–10.

³¹ Osterhammel, Shanghai, 9.

³² Ibid., 7–12; Bickers, “Shanghailanders,” 168–169; Clifford, Spoilt Children of Empire, 21–22; and Lockwood, “International Settlement at Shanghai,” 1033–1034.

³³ Osterhammel, Shanghai, 18–22.

³⁴ Woodhead, China Year Book 1928, 723–725; Wilbur and How, Missionaries of Revolution; Manchester Guardian, April 12, 14, 1927; The Times (London), April 7, 1927. See also: Wilbur, The Nationalist Revolution, 92, 96–97, 103–111; Martin, “The Green Gang,” 64–92; Trampedach, “Chiang Kaishek,” 128–132; and Fung, “Chinese Nationalists,” 803–804.

³⁵ Remer and Palmer, Study of Chinese Boycotts, 111–113, 119–122, 127; Woodhead, China Year Book 1928, 900; Fung, Diplomacy of Imperial Retreat, 44–89; Goto-Shibata, Japan and Britain, 18; Rigby, The May 30 Movement, 142–146; and See, “Alone against the Waking Dragon,” 175–176.

³⁶ Data taken from: Eidgenössische Oberzolldirektion, Statistik des Warenverkehrs 1924; Eidgenössische Oberzolldirektion, Statistik des Warenverkehrs 1925; Eidgenössische Oberzolldirektion, Statistik des Warenverkehrs 1926; Eidgenössische Oberzolldirektion, Statistik des Warenverkehrs 1927.

³⁷ Eidgenössische Oberzolldirektion, Statistik des Warenverkehrs 1924; Eidgenössische Oberzolldirektion, Statistik des Warenverkehrs 1925; Eidgenössische Oberzolldirektion, Statistik des Warenverkehrs 1926; Eidgenössische Oberzolldirektion, Statistik des Warenverkehrs 1927.

³⁸ Kästli, “Zur wirtschaftlichen Erschliessung Chinas. Der Uhrenmarkt in China,” April 30, 1923, BAR E 2300 1000/716_431.

³⁹ Data taken from: Eidgenössische Oberzolldirektion, Statistik des Warenverkehrs 1923; Eidgenössische Oberzolldirektion, Statistik des Warenverkehrs 1924; Eidgenössische Oberzolldirektion, Statistik des Warenverkehrs 1925; Eidgenössische Oberzolldirektion, Statistik des Warenverkehrs 1926; Eidgenössische Oberzolldirektion, Statistik des Warenverkehrs 1927.

⁴⁰ Kamber, “Medienereignishierarchien,” 374.

⁴¹ Ibid., 376.

⁴² Ziehr, “Vargas,” vol. 6, 416.

⁴³ Knüsel, “British Conservatives,” 62–92.

⁴⁴ Journal de Genève, June 17, 1925, July 3, 1925; NZZ, June 7, 10, 11, 21, 27, 1925, March 26, 1927; Schweizer Illustrierte Zeitung, July 9, 1925; Tages-Anzeiger, June 10, 1925, March 23, 1927, June 11, 1925, June 21, 1925, July 27, 1925; and Luzerner Tagblatt, June 13, 1925, July 11, 1925.

⁴⁵ See for example Journal de Genève, June 26, 1925 and July 4, 1925.

⁴⁶ Dreyer, Schweizer Kreuz und Sowjetstern, 92.

⁴⁷ Gazette de Lausanne, July 28, 1925; see also June 9, 15, 25, 1925, July 6, 28, 1925.

⁴⁸ NZZ, April 21, 1927; Schweizer Illustrierte Zeitung, February 17, 1927, April 1, 1927, April 14, 1927, April 21, 1927; Journal de Genève, June 18, 1925; and Tages-Anzeiger, April 7, 1927.

⁴⁹ Tages-Anzeiger, March 23, 1927.

⁵⁰ Luzerner Tagblatt, June 13, 1925.

⁵¹ Ibid., July 11, 1925.

⁵² Journal de Genève, June 24, 1925; see also July 30, 1924.

⁵³ Gazette de Lausanne, June 20, 1925; NZZ, June 10, 21, 1925, July 5, 1925, March 22, 1927; Luzerner Tagblatt, July 11, 13, 1925; Tages-Anzeiger, June 29, 1925; and Journal de Genève, July 3, 1925.

⁵⁴ Luzerner Tagblatt, June 6, 1925 and July 11, 1925 (quote).

⁵⁵ Schweizer Illustrierte Zeitung, June 18, 1925.

⁵⁶ NZZ, March 22, 1927.

⁵⁷ Nebelspalter, August 7, 1925, April 29, 1927, March 15, 1927, June 17, 1927.

⁵⁸ Peter Bachmann, “Driving the foreigners out of China”.

⁵⁹ Tages-Anzeiger, June 22, 1925.

⁶⁰ Ibid., June 26, 1925.

⁶¹ NZZ, July 31, 1925 and March 22, 1927; Tages-Anzeiger, June 29, 1925; and Nebelspalter, November 27, 1925 and May 13, 1927.

⁶² “Protokoll der Sitzung des Bundesrates vom 31. März 1927,” March 31, 1927, Commission nationale pour la publication de Documents Suisses, 489–490; and Woodhead, China Year Book 1928, 4.

⁶³ “Freundschaftsvertrag zwischen der Schweiz und der Republik China,” Bundesblatt 52, no. 5 (1918), 657–659. See also: Zhou, Exterritorialitätsrechte, 20–40, 63–66.

⁶⁴ Coduri, La Suisse, 50–53.

⁶⁵ Dejung and Zangger, “British Wartime Protectionism,” 182.

⁶⁶ Ibid., 181–213. For an overview of the historiography, see Dejung, “Unbekannte Intermediäre,” 139–142. For the development of Swiss trade in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, see Iselin, Lüthi, and Sebastian, Der schweizerische Grosshandel, 104–135.

⁶⁷ David and Etemad, “Gibt es einen schweizerischen Imperialismus?” 19–21. For Swiss economic opportunism in different locations, see Stucki, Das heimliche Imperium; and Witschi, Schweizer auf imperialistischen Pfaden.

⁶⁸ Dejung and Zangger, “British Wartime Protectionism.”

⁶⁹ Bairoch, “La Suisse,” 105–108; and Tanner, “Die Schweiz und Europa,” 409–410.

⁷⁰ Woodhead, China Year Book 1928, 4.

⁷¹ NZZ, July 9, 1925.

⁷² NZZ, July 5, 1925. See also Journal de Genève, July 13, 1925 and March 25, 1927; and NZZ, March 22, 1927.

⁷³ Kreis, Mythos Rütli; and Sablonier, Gründungszeit ohne Eidgenossen.

⁷⁴ Wild, “Auf wen schoss Wilhelm Tell,” 25–27; Imhof, “Sonderfallsdiskurse und Pfadabhängigkeit,” 29–36.

⁷⁵ Marchal, Schweizer Gebrauchsgeschichte, 130–131.

⁷⁶ Widmer, Die Schweiz als Sonderfall, 134–141; Bonjour, “Geschichte der schweizerischen Aussenpolitik,” 57–80; Rapold, Der Schweizerische Generalstab, 19–26, 121–180; Mittler, Der Weg zum Ersten Weltkrieg, 719–763; Kaestli, Selbstbezogenheit und Offenheit, 34–35; Langendorf and Streit, Face à la guerre, 132–138; and Im Hof, Mythos Schweiz, 184–185.

⁷⁷ Moos, “Ein Aufbruch,” 48.

⁷⁸ Ibid., 50–55; and Kaestli, Selbstbezogenheit und Offenheit, 111–115, 121–124.

⁷⁹ Tages-Anzeiger, June 26, 1925.

⁸⁰ NZZ, June 26, 1925.

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Notes on contributors

Ariane Knüsel

Ariane KNÜSEL teaches history at the University of Zurich. Her research focuses on Western media portrayals (particularly cartoons) of China in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries; Swiss political and economic relations with China during the Cold War; British, American, and Swiss political, economic, social, and cultural relations with China until 1950; and the role of the press in the discursive construction of nationhood. Her publications include Framing China: Media Images and Political Debates in Britain, the USA and Switzerland, 1900–1950 (Farnham: Ashgate, 2012) and “British Conservatives, the Red Menace and Anti-British Agitation in China, 1924–1927,” Cultural History, 2/1 (2013): 62–92.