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ABSTRACT
This article examines how sex affected the larger politics of the Sino–US alliance during World War II. By early 1945, Chinese from across the social spectrum resented the US military presence, but just one issue sparked a violent backlash: sexual relations between American soldiers (GIs) and Chinese women. Two interrelated, patriarchal narratives about sex emerged that spring. Starting in March, government-backed newspapers began criticizing “Jeep girls,” an epithet coined to describe the Chinese women who consorted with American servicemen. Rumors also circulated that GIs were using Jeeps to kidnap “respectable” women and rape them. Each narrative portrayed women’s bodies as territory to be recovered and inextricable from national sovereignty. These narratives resonated widely, turning Jeep girls into the catalyst through which all variables causing resentment against the US military presence intersected and converged. With Japan on the ropes, China’s allied friends now stood in the way of irreversibly consigning foreign imperialism to the past. Sexual relations were not the Sino–US alliance’s seedy underside, but the core site of its tensions.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
Glossary
| Baishiyi | = | 白市驛 |
| Bao Huaguo | = | 包華國 |
| Baoshan | = | 保山 |
| Bose | = | 百色 |
| Chengdu | = | 成都 |
| Chongqing weishu zong silingbu | = | 重慶衛戍總司令部 |
| Dagong bao | = | 《大公報》 |
| Damei wanbao | = | 《大美晚報》 |
| Dai Li | = | 戴笠 |
| Dali | = | 大理 |
| Dong Shijin | = | 董時進 |
| Fabi | = | 法幣 |
| Guangxi ribao | = | 《廣西日報》 |
| Guilin | = | 桂林 |
| Guiyang | = | 貴陽 |
| Guizhou | = | 貴州 |
| He Haoruo | = | 何浩若 |
| He Yaozu | = | 賀耀祖 |
| Huang Jiade | = | 黃嘉德 |
| jifang | = | 機房 |
| Jipu nülang | = | 吉普女郎 |
| Junshi weiyuanhui waishiju | = | 軍事委員會外事局 |
| Juntong | = | 軍統 |
| Kunming | = | 昆明 |
| Liangzhou pinglun | = | 《兩週評論》 |
| Liziba | = | 李子壩 |
| Li Xin | = | 厲新 |
| Luliang | = | 陸梁 |
| Luoping | = | 羅平 |
| Ma Weihan | = | 馬維漢 |
| Mei Yiqi | = | 梅貽琦 |
| Mei Zubin | = | 梅祖彬 |
| minzhu | = | 民主 |
| minsheng | = | 民生 |
| Nanping | = | 南屏 |
| Qianjiang | = | 黔江 |
| Ruhe zhidao guanbing yu mengjun xiangchu | = | 《如何指導官兵與盟軍相處》 |
| Saodang bao | = | 《掃蕩報》 |
| Shen Chong shijian | = | 沈崇時間 |
| Shen Zui | = | 沈醉 |
| Shiqiaopu | = | 石橋鋪 |
| Shishi xinbao | = | 《時事新報》 |
| Tang Yi | = | 唐毅 |
| Tao Cenggu | = | 陶曾谷 |
| waishi ju | = | 外事局 |
| Wang Anlin | = | 王安林 |
| Wang Shiming | = | 汪世銘 |
| Wang Yabo | = | 汪亞伯 |
| Weidemai | = | 魏德邁 |
| Wujiaba | = | 巫家壩 |
| Xi feng | = | 《西風》 |
| Xiandai funü | = | 《現代婦女》 |
| Xinwen tiandi | = | 《新聞天地》 |
| Yangkai (Yangjie) | = | 羊街 |
| Yang Zhengcai | = | 楊正彩 |
| Yunnanyi | = | 雲南驛 |
| Zha Hailun | = | 查海倫 |
| Zhang Wanli | = | 張萬里 |
| Zhengyi bao | = | 《正義報》 |
| Zhongyang ribao | = | 《中央日報》 |
| Zhongyang xuanchuan bu | = | 中央宣傳部 |
Notes
1 van de Ven, War and Nationalism, 43–47.
2 Fredman, “Lofty Expectations,” 585–592; and Fredman, From Allies to Occupiers, 53–74, 168–235, and 331–352.
3 Hershatter, Women and China’s Revolutions; Hershatter, Dangerous Pleasures, 3–24; and Duara, “The Regime of Authenticity,” 287–298.
4 See, for example, Zheng, “A Specter of Extraterritoriality,” 17–44; Shaffer, “A Rape in Beijing,” 31–64; Zhang, America Perceived, 77–121. Authors who have written about Jeep girls also focus on the Shen Chong Incident and the Civil War period. See Cathcart, “Atrocities, Insults, and ‘Jeep Girls,’” 140–154; and Bickers, Out of China, 270–271.
5 Hershatter, Dangerous Pleasures, 3–4; and Enloe, Maneuvers, 51–60.
6 This policy followed the US military’s pattern in the Philippines. See Kramer, “Shades of Sovereignty,” 249–253.
7 Reynolds, Rich Relations, 209–210.
8 Ludden to Tull, Jan. 16, 1943, Records of the Foreign Service Posts of the Department of State, Record Group 84, Kunming Consulate Records, Box 52, 1943 Part VIII.
9 Fourteenth Air Force navigator Jack Samson wrote that Chennault cheated on his wife Nell with numerous Chinese women during the war. See Samson, Flying Tiger, 346–347.
10 On Southeast Asia see Stoler, Carnal Knowledge and Imperial Power, 1–21.
11 This policy derived from War Department Circular No. 307, issued on July 18, 1944. See “Marriage of Military and Naval Personnel,” Jan. 23, 1943, Records of the United States Marine Corps, Record Group 127, Box 73, III MAC War Diary January 1946.
12 Reynolds, Rich Relations, 210–214, 413, and 420–422; Bioletti, The Yanks are Coming, 75; and Barker and Jackson, Fleeting Attraction, 170–174.
13 “Kunming Zhong Mei nannü shejiao.”
14 On midcentury race making, see Shibusawa, America’s Geisha Ally, 55–83, and 296. See also Kramer, Blood of Government.
15 US Army Service Forces, A Short Guide to Britain, 10–20; US Army Service Forces, A Pocket Guide to Australia, 12–32; and US Army Service Forces, A Short Guide to New Zealand, 7–11.
16 US Army Service Forces, A Pocket Guide to China, 5.
17 Cornebise, The United States Army in China, 87–93; Clark, George B., Treading Softly, 105–106; and Tolley, Yangtze Patrol, 91, 102, and 209.
18 Headquarters, USF China Theater, Jan. 22, 1945, Records of the US Army Forces in the China-Burma-India Theaters of Operations, Record Group 493, Records of the Special Staff, Box 95, 1944–1945.
19 Meikong silingbu cheng Kunming xingying [US Air Force Headquarters to Kunming Garrison Headquarters], Aug. 3, 1942, Junshi weiyuanhui Kunming xingying dang’an [National Military Council Kunming Garrison Headquarters Archives], file no. 1094–0001-00087–0070-73.
20 Operation of United Nations Club, May 29, 1944, Record Group 493, UD-UP 365, Box 64, 250.2 barred or restricted areas; and Clark, Arthur W., Eyes of the Tiger, 59–60.
21 Hlavacek, Letters Home, 210–211.
22 Miles, A Different Kind of War, 94, and 138–139; SACO China No. 1, Sept. 20, 1944, and Report of Mr. “X” on Precarious Sino-American Relations in Chongqing, Apr. 24, 1945, Records of the US Army Forces in the China-Burma-India Theaters of Operations, Record Group 493, UD-UP 266, Box 314, Morals and Conduct from 5/16 to 6/30 1945.
23 Cooper to Wedemeyer, Major Gerald E. Reed, Jan. 26, 1945, Records of the US Army Forces in the China-Burma-India Theaters of Operations, Record Group 493, UD-UP 266, Box 314, China Theater AG 250.1.
24 Paul LeRoy Jones, Diary Entry, June 26, 1943, Paul LeRoy Jones Papers, Box 1, Folder 5.
25 “Shi dai feng cai nianzhong pan dian,” 8–13.
26 Citation, Madame Chiang Monlin-lin, undated, James B. Hinchliff Collection.
27 Theodore White, “GIs and Chungking Girls,” June 2, 1945, Theodore White Papers, Box 58, Folder 16.
28 “Civilians and Dayrooms.”
29 Peck, Two Kinds of Time, 518–550; and Cheng Huina, “Jipu nülang yan zhong de Meiguo bing,” 58–59.
30 Dikotter, The Discourse of Race in Modern China, 58.
31 Edwards, “Policing the Modern Woman,” 134–135; and Ferlanti, “The New Life Movement at War,” 194, and 198.
32 Theodore White, “GIs and Chungking Girls,” June 2, 1945, Theodore White Papers, Box 58, Folder 16.
33 Peck, Two Kinds of Time, 520.
34 Ibid., 537–540.
35 “Qudi bu zhengdang yule.” “New Woman” discourse was an attempt by male intellectuals to shore up declining political influence by policing Chinese womanhood. See Edwards, “Policing the Modern Woman,” 115–143.
36 Mitter, Forgotten Ally, 318–326; and Young, China’s Wartime Finance and Inflation, 264–266.
37 “Political Reports for January and February 1945,” Records of the Foreign Service Posts of the Department of State, Record Group 84, Kunming Consulate, Classified General Records 1944–1949, Box 3, Classified Files 1945; and Inflation and Countermeasures, undated, Record Group 493, UD-UP 243, Box 16, Black Book China #5:2.
38 Personnel Strength: China Theater, undated, Records of the US Army Forces in the China-Burma-India Theaters of Operations, Record Group 493, UD-UP 243, Box 15, Black Book China #1; and Personnel Strength Jan. 1945 to Jan. 1946, Records of the US Army Forces in the China-Burma-India Theaters of Operations, Record Group 493, UD-UP 590, Box 11, Charts on Strength USFCT.
39 Chinese generals earned $20,000 fabi per month, or just over US$6 at black market exchange rates in Chongqing. Chang Jui-te, Kangzhan shiqi de guojun renshi, 91–99; and US War Department, WAC Life, 162–163.
40 Huang Shang, Guanyu Meiguo bing, 38–39.
41 Huang Shang, Guanyu Meiguo bing, 41–42; Hershatter, Dangerous Pleasures, 37–50; and Henriot, Prostitution and Sexuality in Shanghai, 88–98. On camptown prostitution see, Höhn and Moon, Over There, 1–77.
42 Clark, Arthur W., Eyes of the Tiger, 59–60.
43 Counter Intelligence Corps, “Jeep Girls,” May 13, 1945, Records of the US Army Forces in the China-Burma-India Theaters of Operations, Record Group 493, UD-UP 266, box 314, Morals and Conduct from 5/16 to 6/30 1945.
44 Huang Shang, Guanyu Meiguo bing, 40.
45 Zhu Junle, “Jeep Car yu Jeep Girl.”
46 “Gei jipu xiaojie men.”
47 “The Jeep Girl,” Zhengyi bao, May 3, 1945, cited in OWI Kunming Branch Translation Service, Records of the Office of War Information, Record Group 208, Entry 370, Box 383, unmarked folder 3.
48 “So This Is Kunming,” Zhongyang ribao (Kunming), May 16, 1945, cited in OWI Kunming Branch Translation Service, Record Group 208, Entry 370, Box 383, unmarked folder 3.
49 Theodore White, “This Week in Chungking,” May 10, 1945, Theodore White Papers, Box 58, Folder 10.
50 See Hershatter, Women and China’s Revolutions, chap. 5.
51 Peck, Two Kinds of Time, 636. See also Bickers, Out of China, 269–270. Patriarchal nationalist movements elsewhere shared this trait. See Roberts, What Soldiers Do, 88–89; and Enloe, Maneuvers, 51–99.
52 Shen Lusha, “Wo shi Jeep Girl.”
53 Edwards, “Policing the Modern Woman.”
54 My analysis borrows from Cynthia Enloe. See Enloe, Does Khaki Become You?, 38–39.
55 This literature is too vast to describe here in detail. A representative example includes Roberts, What Soldiers Do, esp. 108–110, and 198–199; Reynolds, Rich Relations; Bailey and Farber, The First Strange Place; Barker and Jackson, Fleeting Attraction; Bioletti, The Yanks are Coming; Tanaka, Japan’s Comfort Women; and Lilly, Taken by Force.
56 Sichuan Sheng renmin zhengfu waishi qiaowu (Gang Ao) bangong shi, “Waiguo ren feifa, fanzui an de jiaoshe.” Accessed July 2, 2017. http://www.scfao.gov.cn/info/detail.jsp?infoId=B000000650.
57 Zhipu Gang cheng Tang Yi dian [Officer Pu’s Report to Police Chief Tang Yi], Oct. 18, 1940, Chongqing shi jingjcha ju dang’an [Chongqing Municipal Police Bureau Archives], file no. 0061-0015-02080-0000.
58 “Zhang Wanli zhi Chongqing shi zhengfu dian [Zhang Wanli Memorandum to the Chongqing City Government], Oct. 7, 1942, shi zhengfu dang’an [Municipal Government Archives], file no. 0053-0010-00019-0023–25.
59 Tang Yi cheng Chongqing shi zhengfu dian [Tang Yi Memorandum to the Chongqing Municipal Government], Dec. 13, 1944, shi zhengfu dang’an, file 0053-0010-0019-0093-94.
60 He Haoruo to Albert Wedemeyer, Jan. 26, 1945, Records of the US Army Forces in the China-Burma-India Theaters of Operations, Record Group 493, Records of the Special Staff, Box 95, 1944–1945.
61 Tang Yi cheng Chongqing shi zhengfu dian [Tang Yi Memorandum to the Chongqing Municipal Government], Dec. 13, 1944, shi zhengfu dang’an, file no. 0053-0010-0019-0093-94.
62 Wang Shiming to US Army Headquarters, Mar. 19, 1945, Records of the US Army Forces in the China-Burma-India Theaters of Operations, Record Group 493, Records of the Special Staff, Box 98, Dec. 1944 to May 15, 1945.
63 Report of Investigation of Attack on Chinese Guard, Mar. 20, 1945, Records of the US Army Forces in the China-Burma-India Theaters of Operations, Record Group 493, UD-UP 266, Box 314, Dec. 10, 1944 to May 15, 1945; Courts Martial, May 1945, June 1, 1945, Records of the US Army Forces in the China-Burma-India Theaters of Operations, Record Group 493, UD-UP 419, Box 244, Correspondence 1943–1945.
64 Report of Investigation Regarding Misconduct of Personnel, Nov. 3, 1944, Records of the US Army Forces in the China-Burma-India Theaters of Operations, Record Group 493, UD-UP 266, Box 325, Pat O’Brien Case.
65 Statements of George B. Gellas and Peter Smeicinski, May 12 and 13, 1945, Records of the US Army Forces in the China-Burma-India Theaters of Operations, Record Group 493, UD-UP 266, box 314, Morals and Conduct from 5/16 to 6/30 1945.
66 He Haoruo to Albert Wedemeyer, Feb. 21, 1945, Records of the US Army Forces in the China-Burma-India Theaters of Operations, Record Group 493, Records of the Special Staff, Box 98, Morals and Conduct Dec. 1944 to May 15, 1945.
67 Final Report of Case No. W96-88, Jan. 25, 1945, Records of the US Army Forces in the China-Burma-India Theaters of Operations, Record Group 493, UD-UP 541, Box 87, Special Court Martial.
68 Statement of Mr. Chang Ching Dah, Mar. 11, 1945, Records of the US Army Forces in the China-Burma-India Theaters of Operations, Record Group 493, UD-UP 309, Box 670, CASC # 627-17-84.
69 Rumor of Rape, June 26, 1945, Records of the US Army Forces in the China-Burma-India Theaters of Operations, Record Group 493, UD-UP 306, Box 664, Rape/Sex Crimes March to June 1945.
70 China Theater Headquarters, Report of Derelictions, Apr. 5, 1945, Records of the US Army Forces in the China-Burma-India Theaters of Operations, Record Group 493, Records of the Special Staff, Box 98, Morals and Conduct December 1944 to May 15, 1945.
71 Initial and Final Report, Mar. 21, 1945; Statement of Mrs. Yang Zhengcai, Mar. 6, 1945; Statement of Pvt. Harvey Miller, Mar. 8, 1945; Statement of Pvt. Harold Hughes, Mar. 9, 1945; Statement of Pvt. Harvey Miller” Mar. 17, 1945, Records of the US Army Forces in the China-Burma-India Theaters of Operations, Record Group 493, UD-UP 306, Box 665, Investigations: Rape, March 1945.
72 US Army Service Forces, Pocket Guide to China, 2.
73 “Board of Review CM CBI 245,” 1–17.
74 Roberts, What Soldiers Do, 213–214.
75 Chinese American Composite Wing Kunming to Claire Chennault, Feb. 22, 1945, Records of the US Army Forces in the China-Burma-India Theaters of Operations, Record Group 493, Records of the Special Staff, General Correspondence Decimal File, Box 95, 1944–1945.
76 Rumor of Rape, June 26, 1945, Records of the US Army Forces in the China-Burma-India Theaters of Operations, Record Group 493, UD-UP 306, Box 664, Rape Sex Crimes March to June 1945.
77 Alleged Kidnapping and Rape, Mar. 3, 1945, Records of the US Army Forces in the China-Burma-India Theaters of Operations, Record Group 493, UD-UP 309, Box 670, 49a PA9-61.
78 Roberts, What Soldiers Do, 239–242.
79 “Tan Jipu nülang,” 5. On the Modern Woman biweekly see Liu, “Kangri jiuwang houqi,” 56–59.
80 Jeep Drivers Abducting Girls, May 1945 14, Records of the US Army Forces in the China-Burma-India Theaters of Operations, Record Group 493, UD-UP 266, Box 314, Morals and Conduct from 16 May to 30 June.
81 Tang Yi cheng He Yaozu dian [Tang Yi Memorandum to He Haozu], Apr. 14, 1945, shi zhengfu dang’an, file no. 0053-0010-00019-0099-101.
82 Theodore White, “GIs and Chungking Girls,” June 2, 1945, Theodore White Papers, Box 58, Folder 16; “Chongqing ‘Jipu nülang’ shijian shimo,” 41; and “Guan yu qudi Zhongguo nüzi dazai Meijun renyuan Jipuche gei Chongqing shi zhengfu renshi chuli de xunling” [Orders of the Chongqing City Government on Banning Chinese Women from Riding in US Military Jeeps], June 16, 1945, shi zhengfu dang’an, file no. 0953-0002-0179-0016.
83 Roberts, What Soldiers Do, 78–83.
84 Report of “Mr. X” on Precarious Sino-American Relations in Chongqing,” Apr. 25, 1945, Records of the US Army Forces in the China-Burma-India Theaters of Operations, Report Group 493, UD-UP 266, Box 314, Morals and Conduct from 5/16 to 6/30 1945.
85 Chungking Rumors on Immorality of American Military Personnel, May 10, 1945, Records of the US Army Forces in the China-Burma-India Theaters of Operations, Record Group 493, UD-UP 266, Box 314, Morals and Conduct from 5/16 to 6/30 1945.
86 Tang Yi cheng He Yaozu dian [Tang Yi Memorandum to He Yaozu], Mar. 31, 1945, shi zhengfu dang’an, file no. 0053-0010-0019-0095-96.
87 See Memorandum for the Officer in Charge, Apr. 9, 2020, and 21, 1945, Records of the US Army Forces in the China-Burma-India Theaters of Operations, Record Group 493, UD-UP 266, Box 314, Morals and Conduct from 5/16 to 6/30 1945.
88 Behavior of US Military Personnel, Chongqing Area, Apr. 25, 1945, Records of the US Army Forces in the China-Burma-India Theaters of Operations, Record Group 493, UD-UP 266, Box 314, Morals and Conduct from 5/16 to 6/30 1945.
89 Conduct of US Military Personnel in Chongqing and Effect on Sino-American Relations, May 5, 1945, Records of the US Army Forces in the China-Burma-India Theaters of Operations, Record Group 493, UD-UP 266, Box 314, Morals and Conduct from 5/16 to 6/30 1945.
90 Shen Zui, Shen Zui huiyi lu, 62–111; and Wakeman, Spymaster, 331–336, and 344.
91 Wakeman, Strangers at the Gate, 38–56; and Dikotter, The Discourse of Race in Modern China, 43–44, and 158.
92 Wakeman, The Shanghai Badlands, 22–23; and Shen Zui, Shen Zui huiyi lu, 72–73.
93 Friction between US Army Personnel and Chinese Civilians, Apr. 27, 1945, Records of the US Army Forces in the China-Burma-India Theaters of Operations, Record Group 493, UD-UP 266, Box 314, Morals and Conduct from 5/16 to 6/30 1945.
94 Shen Zui, Shen Zui huiyi lu, 71–72, and 93–94; and Wakeman, Spymaster, 336.
95 Guan yu qudi Zhongguo nüzi dazai Meijun renyuan Jipuche gei Chongqing shi zhengfu renshi chuli de xunling, [Chongqing City Government Orders on Stopping Chinese Women from Riding in US Military Jeeps] June 16, 1945, shi zhengfu dang’an, file no. 0953-0002-00179-0016.
96 Wang Zhangqi cheng Song Ziwen dian [Wang Zhangqi Memorandum to Song Ziwen], undated, Waijiaobu dang’an [Foreign Ministry Archives], file no. 020-050204-0039-0105x-106z.
97 Off Limits Area in the Town of Baoshan, Apr. 28, 1945, Records of the US Army Forces in the China-Burma-India Theaters of Operations, Record Group 493, UD-UP 541, Box 85, 250 Discipline.
98 He Haoruo to Wedemeyer, July 17, 1945, Records of the US Army Forces in the China-Burma-India Theaters of Operations, Record Group 493, Records of the Special Staff, Box 98, Morals and Conduct December 1944 to May 15, 1945.
99 Discipline of US Troops in Huachi, May 12, 1945, Records of the US Army Forces in the China-Burma-India Theaters of Operations, Record Group 493, UD-UP 541, Box 85, 250 Discipline.
100 Attack on American Officer, May 14, 1945, Records of the US Army Forces in the China-Burma-India Theaters of Operations, Record Group 493, UD-UP 266, Box 314, Morals and Conduct from 5/16 to 6/30 1945.
101 Junshi weiyuan hui ling Chongqing shi zhengfu dian [National Military Council Orders to Chongqing Municipal Government], May 27, 1945, shi zhengfu dang’an, file no. 0053-0010-00142-0270–71.
102 Jeep Drivers Abducting Girls, May 14, 1945, Records of the US Army Forces in the China-Burma-India Theaters of Operations, Record Group 493, UD-UP 266, Box 314, Morals and Conduct from 5/16 to 6/30 1945.
103 Safeguarding Chinese-American Relationships, May 16, 1945, Records of the US Army Forces in the China-Burma-India Theaters of Operations, Record Group 493, of the Special Staff, Box 95, Morals and Conduct from May 16, 1945 to June 30, 1945.
104 Weidemai cheng Jiang Jieshi dian [Albert Wedemeyer Memorandum to Chiang Kai-shek], May 18, 1945, shi zhengfu dang’an, file no. 0053-0010-00142-0235–237.
105 Ch’i Hsi-sheng, Jianba nüzhang de mengyou, 697.
106 Other US-supported autocrats would find themselves in similar dilemmas after 1945. See McCoy, In the Shadows of the American Century, chap. 2.
107 Jiang Jieshi ling He Yaozu dian [Orders from Chiang Kai-shek to He Yaozu], May 31, 1945, shi zhengfu dang’an, file no. 0053-0010-00142–0293.
108 Yi Ren, “Cong ZhongMei nannü shijiao tan guomin waijiao,” 4–5; Hong Shen, “Guanyu Jipu nülang”; and Nan Mo, “Jipu nülang,” 1.
109 Yu, The Dragon’s War, 159–60.
110 “Yingxiang ZhongMei youyi de ‘Jipu nülang’ shijian,” 47–48.
111 Yan Jun, “ZhongMei nannü shejiao,” 25–27.
112 Dong Shijin, “Guanyu Jipu nülang.”
113 “He Haoruo jiang jun tan ZhongMei shejiao.”
114 He Yaozu, “ZhongMei nannü shejiao guannian zhi chengqing.”
115 He Yaozu zhi Bao Huaguo dian [He Yaozu Memorandum to Bao Huaguo], May 29, 1945, Shehui ju dang’an [Social Affairs Bureau Archives], file no. 0060-0002-01932-0022.
116 Junshi weiyuan hui ling Chongqing shi zhengfu dian [National Military Council Orders to the Chongqing Municipal Government], May 29, 1945, shi zhengfu dang’an, file no. 0053-0010-00142-0270–80.
117 Tang Yi ling jingcha ju shi fenju dian [Tang Yi Orders to the Tenth Precinct], June 19, 1945, Chongqing shi jingcha ju dang’an [Chongqing Municipal Police Bureau Archives], file no. 0061-0611-00213-0009.
118 Chongqing shi zhengfu ge jiguan shangtao qiadai mengjun huiyi jilu [Notes from the Municipal Governement Meeting Discussing US Forces], May 26, 1945, shi zhengfu dang’an, file no. 0053-0004-00201-0026–27.
119 “Miscellaneous News,” Xinmin wanbao [Xinmin Evening News], May 28, 1945, Chinese Press Review #144, Records of the Office of War Information, Record Group 208, OWI Informational File on Asia, Box 381, unmarked folder; “New Measures Concerning Public Order,” Guomin gongbao [National Gazette], May 30, 1945, Chinese Press Review #145, Records of the Office of War Information, Record Group 208, OWI Informational File on Asia, Box 383; “Chongqing weishu zong siling bu bugao,” [Announcement from the Chongqing Garrison Command Headquarters], May 31, 1945, Chongqing shi jingcha ju dang’an, file no. 0061-0001-00029-0092.
120 “Weizuo xunling budui jiaqiang dui Meijun youyi.”
121 Ruhe zhidao guanbing yu mengjun xiangchu [How to Guide Our Soldiers to Get Along with Allied Troops], June 18, 1945, shi zhengfu dang’an, file no. 0053-0010-00142-0312-15.108.
122 Chongqing shi ge jiguan shangtao qiadai mengjun huiyi jilu, May 26, 1945, shi zhengfu dang’an, file no. 0053-0004-00201-0026–27.
123 Conduct of United States Military Personnel, June 7, 1945, Records of the US Army Forces in the China-Burma-India Theaters of Operations, Record Group 493, UD-UP 541, Box 85, 250 Discipline.
124 Discipline and Morale of Troops in China, May 12, 1945, Records of the US Army Forces in the China-Burma-India Theaters of Operations, Record Group 493, UD-UP 541, Box 85, 250 Discipline.
125 Report of Delinquency: Omar White, May 18, 1945, Records of the US Army Forces in the China-Burma-India Theaters of Operations, Record Group 493, UD-UP 541, Box 82, 230.742.
126 Initial and Final Report, Case #627-232, Sept. 5, 1945, Records of the US Army Forces in the China-Burma-India Theaters of Operations, Record Group 493, UD-UP 541, Box 85, 250 Discipline.
127 Alleged Shooting of Chinese Civilians by American Personnel at Bose, Guangxi, Sept. 13, 1945, Records of the US Army Forces in the China-Burma-India Theaters of Operations, Record Group 493, UD-UP 541, Box 85, 250 Discipline.
128 Report of Staff Judge Advocate for the Month of July Aug. 5, 1945, Citation1945, Records of the US Army Forces in the China-Burma-India Theaters of Operations, Record Group 493, UD-UP 419, Box 246, Monthly JAG Reports.
129 Display of Weapons by US and Chinese Personnel, Aug. 3, 1945, Records of the US Army Forces in the China-Burma-India Theaters of Operations, Record Group 493, UD-UP 265, Box 63, 000.5 from Aug. 1, 1945 to 31 December.
130 Murder and Robbery of American Soldiers at APO 430: Final Report, July 5, 1945, Records of the US Army Forces in the China-Burma-India Theaters of Operations, Record Group 493, UD-UP 306, Box 666, Investigation, May 1945.
131 Altercation between American and Chinese Military Personnel, June 28, 1945, Records of the US Army Forces in the China-Burma-India Theaters of Operations, Record Group 493, UD-UP 541, Box 68, 014.13 Relations with Civil and Military.
132 Altercation between Chinese and American Personnel at Baoshan, July 28, 1945, Records of the US Army Forces in the China-Burma-India Theaters of Operations, Record Group 493, UD-UP 541, Box 67, 000.5 Crimes Folder from July 22, 1945.
133 Tang Yi ling dishi fenju dian [Tang Yi Orders to Tenth Precinct], Sept. 4, 1945, Chongqing shi jingcha ju dang’an, file no. 0061-0011-00048-0019-19.1; Wedemeyer to Chiang, Aug. 11, 1945, Records of the US Army Forces in the China-Burma-India Theaters of Operations, Record Group 493, UD-UP 265, Box 63, 00.5 from Aug. 1, 1945 to 31 December.
134 Enloe, Bananas, Beaches, and Bases, 66–67.
135 On other US-allied autocrats who faced the same dilemma, see McCoy, In the Shadows of the American Century, chap. 2.
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Zach FREDMAN
Zach FREDMAN is an assistant professor of history at Duke Kunshan University in Jiangsu, China, where he teaches courses on Chinese and American history. His first book, From Allied Friend to Mortal Enemy: The US Military in Wartime China, is forthcoming with the University of North Carolina Press. He obtained his doctoral degree at Boston University and has held postdoctoral fellowships at Dartmouth College and Nanyang Technological University.