Religious liberty for the Chinese child: missionary debates in the 1930s

ABSTRACT

In 1931, liberal and conservative Christians debated the possibility of replacing Bible Study with a comparative religions course for elementary-school students, in order to comply with regulations of the Republic of China. Made possible by the ecumenical and indigenization movements within Christianity, this debate intersected with multiple issues: Western accommodation to the rise of Chinese nationalism; Christian resistance to growing secularization in the West, including elements of the social gospel; and clerical responses to child-centered pedagogies. Furthermore, liberals also promoted religious studies as a method for increasing cross-cultural understanding and world peace after World War II. While previous scholars have situated government registration of parochial schools within the rise of Chinese nationalism, this article asserts that missionaries in the 1930s viewed children’s religious education within the framework of both Chinese indigenization and global secularization.

KEYWORDS:

• Religious education
• mission field
• Christianity
• China
• childhood
• Frank Rawlinson

Acknowledgments

This paper was first presented at a workshop organized by Stefan Huebner at the National University of Singapore and received significant and helpful feedback from participants. The author also thanks Susan Curtis, Deborah Fleetham, Melissa Inouye, Larry Mykytiuk, and anonymous reviewers for commenting on drafts.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

Glossary

Jiang Menglin (Chiang Monlin)	=	蒋梦麟
Lin Wenqing (Lim Boon Keng)	=	林文庆
Liu Tingfang (Timothy T. Lew)	=	刘廷芳
Niu Yongjian	=	纽永建
Wu Yaozong	=	吴耀宗
Xin Chao (Hsin Ch’ao)	=	《新潮》
Xu Baoqian (Pao-ch’ien Hsü)	=	徐宝谦
Yun Daiying	=	恽代英
Zhang Zhijiang	=	张之江
Zhao Fusan	=	赵复三
Zhao Zichen (T. C. Chao)	=	赵紫宸
Zhu Jingnong (King Chu)	=	朱经农

Notes

¹ St. Augustine, Confessions, 26.

² Greven, The Protestant Temperament, 35, 36, 39–42, 54–55.

³ Bendroth, “Mainline Protestants and Childrearing,” 32.

⁴ Boylan, “Sunday Schools,” 328.

⁵ Bendroth, “Mainline Protestants and Children,” 34.

⁶ Thomson, For God and Globe, 17.

⁷ Thompson, “Ecumenism,” 70.

⁸ Fleming, “Aggressiveness in Religion,” 2.

⁹ Thompson, “Ecumenism,” 70.

¹⁰ Wu, “Quest for an ‘Indigenous Church,’” 109.

¹¹ Lutz, Chinese Politics and Christian Missions, 91–256; and Gregg, China and Educational Autonomy. For some more recent scholarship, see Rigdon, “National Salvation,” 193–217; and Cui, “British Protestant Educational Activities,” 137–160.

¹² Rawlinson, “Religious Liberty,” (Feb. 1931),102.

¹³ Kepler, “Kuomintang and Religion,” 616.

¹⁴ Cohen, China and Christianity, 170–185.

¹⁵ VanderVen, A School in Every Village, 49–50.

¹⁶ “Christian Education,” 161.

¹⁷ Yang, “The Pre-Adolescent Religion Education,” 26.

¹⁸ Lutz, Chinese politics and Christian missions, 2.

¹⁹ Yang, “Pre-Adolescent Religion Education,” 26; see also Peake, Nationalism and Education, 151.

²⁰ “Kuomintang Would Muzzle Mission Schools,” 13.

²¹ Lutz, Chinese Politics and Christian Missions, 154.

²² Chu, “Compulsory Religious Education,” 342.

²³ Ibid., 342.

²⁴ Ibid., 343.

²⁵ Ibid., 343–344.

²⁶ Boyd, Emissaries, 141.

²⁷ Rawlinson, “Religious Liberty,” (Feb. 1931), 104.

²⁸ Ibid., 105.

²⁹ Garrett, Social Reformers, 181; see, for example, “Sanminzhuyi jiaoyu yu Jiduhua jiaoyu chongtu de jieguo,” 10.

³⁰ See, for example, “The Present Situation,” 453–461.

³¹ Nedostup, Superstitious Regimes, 34–35.

³² Ibid., 82.

³³ Kepler, “The Kuomintang and Religion,” 622.

³⁴ Peake, Nationalism and Education, 152.

³⁵ Kuomin News Agency, “Nanking’s Policy,” 20; Rawlinson, “Religious Liberty,” (Feb. 1931), 106.

³⁶ T.C. Chao, “The General Religious Situation in China Today,” trans. T. T. Lew, (Shanghai: YMCA, 1930) in “Zhonghua Jidujiao Nüqinghui baogao” [YWCA Report] Shanghai Municipal Archives, file. no. U121-0-35.

³⁷ “Shanghai tebieshi jiaoyuju wei pilu diyipi ying qudi sili xuexiao tonggao,” 6.

³⁸ Yu, “Has the Christian School a Future?” 450–451.

³⁹ For example, “Zhonghua Jidujiao xiari ertong yiwu xuexiao xiehui gaibian mingcheng,” 61.

⁴⁰ “No Restrictions,” 12.

⁴¹ Yan Lin, “Jiaohui,” 1.

⁴² “Dui Jiaobu quxi jiaohuishu de ganxiang,” 1–3.

⁴³ “Emphatic in Condemnation,” 10.

⁴⁴ Rawlinson, “Religious Liberty,” (Mar. 1931), 155.

⁴⁵ Kepler verified this information to reporters at the North-China Herald and Supreme Court & Consular Gazette. See “Missionary Petition Denied,” 152.

⁴⁶ For a complete transcript of the petition and Minister of Education Jiang Menglin’s response, see “Religious Education.”

⁴⁷ Yan Lin, “Jiaohui,” 1.

⁴⁸ Rawlinson, “Religious Liberty,” (Feb. 1931), 106–107.

⁴⁹ Hsu, “Transnationalism,” 142.

⁵⁰ Marsden, Soul of the American University, 4, 267–356.

⁵¹ Hall, “Mission Pedagogy,” 139.

⁵² Ibid., 139.

⁵³ Ibid., 140, 143–144.

⁵⁴ Hill, The Education and Problems, 28.

⁵⁵ Hall, “Mission Pedagogy,” 146, 141.

⁵⁶ Fleming, “Aggressiveness in Religion,” 8, 13.

⁵⁷ Hsü, “Chinese Church Comes of Age,” 16–17.

⁵⁸ Rawlinson, “Religious Liberty,” (Feb. 1931), 103.

⁵⁹ Ibid., 101.

⁶⁰ Rawlinson, “Religious Liberty,” (Mar. 1931), 160.

⁶¹ “A Petition Refused,” 153.

⁶² Dickson, Museum Makers, 118; 137–214.

⁶³ Rawlinson, “Religious Liberty,” (Mar. 1931), 156.

⁶⁴ Rawlinson, “Religious Liberty,” (Apr. 1931), 234.

⁶⁵ Ibid., (Mar. 1931), 157.

⁶⁶ Ibid.

⁶⁷ Rawlinson, “Crisis of Christian Missions,” 11.

⁶⁸ Rawlinson, “Religious Liberty,” (Feb. 1931), 108.

⁶⁹ Ibid.

⁷⁰ Rawlinson, “Religious Liberty,” (Apr. 1931), 234.

⁷¹ Ibid.

⁷² Ibid.

⁷³ Ibid., 235.

⁷⁴ Rawlinson, “Religious Liberty,” (Mar. 1931), 156.

⁷⁵ Ibid.

⁷⁶ Fleming, “Code of Ethics,” 968.

⁷⁷ Ibid., 969.

⁷⁸ Ibid.

⁷⁹ Fleming, “Aggressiveness in Religion,” 3.

⁸⁰ Ibid., 7.

⁸¹ Reichelt, “Conference of Chinese Buddhist Leaders,” 669.

⁸² Ibid.

⁸³ Rawlinson, “Religious Liberty,” (Mar. 1931), 156; Boylan, “Sunday Schools,” 324; and Boylan, “Presbyterians and Sunday Schools,” 37–44.

⁸⁴ Rawlinson, “Religious Liberty,” (Mar. 1931), 156.

⁸⁵ Rawlinson, “Religious Liberty,” (Feb. 1931), 108.

⁸⁶ “Xinwen xuejia jiyi ciyou wenti,” 12.

⁸⁷ “China’s Child Welfare Movement,” 61–62.

⁸⁸ Tillman, Raising China’s Revolutionaries.

⁸⁹ Moyn, Christian Human Rights.

⁹⁰ Lutz, Chinese Politics and Christian Missions, 158.

⁹¹ Thoburn, “Church and Modern Industry,” 231.

⁹² Porter, China’s Challenge to Christianity.

⁹³ For example, Rahav, Rise of Political Intellectuals; and Xu, “Social Gospel to Class Revolution.”

⁹⁴ Hall, “Mission Pedagogy,” 128.

⁹⁵ Kepler, “Marginal Notes,” 368.

⁹⁶ Ibid., 367–370.

⁹⁷ Kepler, “Kuomintang and Religion,” 623.

⁹⁸ Ibid.

⁹⁹ Ibid., 620. Lim wrote for the Chinese Recorder on the subject of Chinese civilization; see Lim Boon Keng, “What Can Chinese Civilization Contribute?” 345–350.

¹⁰⁰ Kepler, “Kuomingtang and Religion,” 617.

¹⁰¹ Kepler, “Marginal Notes,” 369.

¹⁰² Ibid., 368.

¹⁰³ Ibid., 369.

¹⁰⁴ Ibid., 368–369.

¹⁰⁵ Ibid., 370.

¹⁰⁶ Tang Shu and Zhong Zhaohua, Zhongguo xueqian jiaoyushi, 84.

¹⁰⁷ Fleming, “Developing a World-Wide Interest,” 154.

¹⁰⁸ Kepler, “Marginal Notes,” 370.

¹⁰⁹ Ibid.

¹¹⁰ Kepler, “Kuomintang and Religion,” 618–619.

¹¹¹ Kepler, “Marginal Notes,” 370.

¹¹² Throop, “Eclecticism,” 371.

¹¹³ Ibid., 371.

¹¹⁴ Ibid., 370–371.

¹¹⁵ Ibid., 370.

¹¹⁶ Ibid., 372. See also Tagawa, “Christianity in Japan.”

¹¹⁷ Anderson, Christianity and Imperialism.

¹¹⁸ Inouye, “Cultural Technologies.”

¹¹⁹ Gvili, “The National Soul.”

¹²⁰ Chao, “The General Religious Situation in China Today,” trans. T. T. Lew, (Shanghai: YMCA, 1930) in “Zhonghua Jidujiao Nüqinghui baogao” [YWCA Report] Shanghai Municipal Archives, file. no. U121-0-35, p. 88.

¹²¹ Thompson, For God and Globe, 85.

¹²² Throop, “Eclecticism,” 371.

¹²³ Ibid., 371.

¹²⁴ Ibid., 372.

¹²⁵ Kepler, “Marginal Notes,” 370.

¹²⁶ “Wanted! A Religious Liberty Pact!” 201.

¹²⁷ Ibid., 204.

¹²⁸ Ibid., 205.

¹²⁹ Price, “Forward! Christian Religious Education!” 627–634.

¹³⁰ Unsigned review of Religious Education, 784.

¹³¹ Ibid.

¹³² Leger, “Recent Developments in Mission Policy,” 161.

¹³³ Hsü, “Christian Youth,” 272.

¹³⁴ Ibid., 273.

¹³⁵ Leger, “Religious Liberty of the Child,” 390–391.

¹³⁶ Leger, “Recruiting and Training Leaders,” 612–615; “Volunteer Church Workers” 679–683.

¹³⁷ “Some Religious Education Facts,” 205.

¹³⁸ Leger, “Religious Liberty of the Child,” 391.

¹³⁹ Thompson, For God and Globe, 2.

¹⁴⁰ Kepler, “The Kuomintang and Religion,” 623.

¹⁴¹ Yang, “Pre-Adolescent Religion Education,” 63.

¹⁴² Ibid., 65.

¹⁴³ Cong, Teachers’ Schools.

¹⁴⁴ Chung, Chinese Women in Christian Ministry, 109.

¹⁴⁵ Yang, “Pre-Adolescent Religion Education,” 60.

¹⁴⁶ Ibid., 64, 68, 76.

¹⁴⁷ Ibid., 60.

¹⁴⁸ Ibid., 58.

¹⁴⁹ Ibid., 30.

¹⁵⁰ Ibid., 46, 48, 52.

¹⁵¹ Ibid., 34.

¹⁵² Ibid., 45.

¹⁵³ Ibid., 53.

¹⁵⁴ Ibid., 69.

¹⁵⁵ Ibid., 66.

¹⁵⁶ Ibid., 45.

¹⁵⁷ O’Keefe, “God of Our Fathers.”

¹⁵⁸ “Christian Social Challenge,” 269.

¹⁵⁹ Kwei, “Training of Chinese Mothers,” 507–511.

¹⁶⁰ Ronning, “Experiences of Chinese Children,” 23.

¹⁶¹ Highbaugh, The Rural Family and Its Significance to the Christian Movement in China, Agricultural Missions Foundation Mimeograph Series (N.p.: Agricultural Missions Foundation, 1938), Burke Library Theological Union Seminary Pamphlet Collection, Columbia University, New York.

¹⁶² Shih, “The Christian Home,” 429.

¹⁶³ Glosser, Visions of Family and State.

¹⁶⁴ Rawlinson, “Religious Liberty,” (Apr. 1931), 233–234.

¹⁶⁵ “Yicheng ji yiti” [Agenda and Questions] (1947), in “Lianheguo jiaokewen zuzhi yuandongqu jiben jiaoyu yanjiu huiyi taolun gangyao ji Zhongguo weiyuanhui gongzuo baogao deng wenshu” [UNESCO Far Eastern Research Conference Documents Such As Discussion Outline and Chinese Committee Work Report], Second National Archives of China, file no. 5(2)-1366.

¹⁶⁶ Betts, “Humanity’s New Heritage,” 252, 269–270.

¹⁶⁷ Boylan, “Sunday Schools,” 322.

¹⁶⁸ Chu, “Compulsory Religious Education,” 342.

¹⁶⁹ Rawlinson, “Religious Liberty,” (Mar. 1931), 163.

Additional information

Funding

This work was supported by the American Council of Learned Societies [17100329].

Notes on contributors

Margaret Mih TILLMAN

Margaret Mih TILLMAN is currently assistant professor of Chinese history at Purdue University. She is the author of Raising China’s Revolutionaries: Modernizing Childhood for Cosmopolitan Nationalists and Liberated Comrades, 1920s–1950s (New York: Columbia University Press, 2018). Her research focuses on childhood education and reform in twentieth-century China.