Managing the Fengtian national forest during the Republican era: affirmation and disputes over usage rights

ABSTRACT

During the late Qing and early Republican periods, the Beijing government implemented a national forest system that challenged customary forest rights in Northeast China. Under the old system in the Qing era, forest rights were considered as a whole, incorporating both forestland and timber on the ground. Private forest rights were usually evidenced by land deeds and tax certificates for forest products. However, the new national forest system subdivided the previously integrated forest rights. This meant that timber from natural forests and non-owner-planted woods had to be nationalized and issued with a standardized state forest license by the Forestry Bureau. Consequently, the separation and nationalization of natural forest tree ownership deprived people of their ownership and usage rights of forest trees on private woodlands and public mountain farms, leading to disputes over forest rights. In Fengtian Province, where there were many natural forests, the extension of national forest rights to private and public mountain forests led to numerous forest disputes and lawsuits, gradually reshaping the local property rights order.

KEYWORDS:

• National forest
• forest tree rights
• forestland rights
• forest disputes
• Fengtian

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Glossary

Andong 安东

Antu 安图

Bahetan Bao 八河滩保

Bai Shangchun 白尚纯

Baiyuguan 白云观

baotao baoling 包套报领

baotao 包套

Baowei tuanfei 保卫团费

Benxi 本溪

caodiandi 草甸地

caodi 草地

chan cao fengsheng zhe 产草丰盛者

chan cao xiduan zhe 产草稀短者

Changle Bao 昌乐保

chansong 缠讼

Chen Zhenxian 陈振先

Cheng Sihan 成思汉

Cheng Youshan 成友善

chilu shazi wei chan cao zhi di 斥卤砂碛未产草之地

Dabeigou 大北

Deng Peng 邓鹏

Deng Xianglin 邓祥麟

dizhao 地照

Dongbiandao 东边道

Dongbianwai 东边外

Donglu tanggou 东路汤沟

Dongsansheng guoyoulin fafang guize《东三省国有林发放规则》

Dongsansheng guoyoulin fafang zanxing guize 《东三省国有林发放暂行规则

E Guisen 鄂桂森

E Quanyin 鄂全印

Fengcheng 凤城

Fengsheng baohu guoyou senlin guize《奉省保护国有森林规则

Fengtian quansheng guandi qingzhang ju 奉天全省官地清丈局

Fengtian 奉天

Fenxun Fengtian sheng dongbian bingbei dao 分巡奉天省东边兵备道

Fusong 抚松

futou juan 斧头捐

fuzhao 斧照

Gao Congwen 高从文

Gao Sutang 高素堂

gaodi ganshi bucheng pianduan zhe 高低干湿不成片段者

gongbu 工部

guandi qingzhang 官地清丈

guanhuang 官荒

Guiwang 鬼王

Guoyou huangdi chengken tiaoli 《国有荒地承垦条例》

Guoyoulin zhengce xiuzheng an 国有林政策修正案

Hailong 海龙

Hao Jiaofang 郝教芳

Huang Baoshan 黄宝山

Huang Delu 黄德禄

Huangyaoyu 黄药峪

Huanren 桓仁

Huinan 辉南

Ji Xuecheng 纪学成

Ji’an 集安

Jiang hai he hu tutan di 江海河湖涂滩地

jianzhao 剪照

kenwuju 垦务局

Kuandian 宽甸

Li Degui 李德贵

Li Xingzhou 李兴周

lindi fenli 林地分离

Linjiang 临江

Lishu Dianzi Liu Hai 刘海

Liu Heling 刘鹤龄

Liu Panlin 刘泮林

Liu Qing 刘青

Liu Yong 刘永

Liuhe 柳河

Liutiaobian 柳条边

Longgang 龙岗

Meng Fanglin 孟芳邻

menghuang 蒙荒

Mulong E 木龙阿

mupiao 木票

Neiwufu 内务府

niutou juan 牛头捐

Nonnglinbu 农林部

nonghui 农会

Nongkuang ting 农矿厅

Qiao Wanfu 乔万富

Qingcha zhuangdi shiban zhangcheng 《清查庄地试办章程》

Senlin fa 森林法

shanchang 山场

shanhuangdi 山荒地

Sheshu 捨书

Shiye ting 实业厅

shuchuandi 树川地

shulindi 树林地

Sipingjie Bao 四平街保

sizhi 四至

Su Xianyang 苏显扬

Sun Huanzhang 孙焕章

Tan Guohuan 谈国桓

Tang Naifu 唐乃福

Tian Zhiye 田治野

Tong Baoquan佟宝泉

Tonghua 通化

Wang Dechun 汪德春

Wangzhuang 王庄

Wolonggou 卧龙沟

Xin Youshan辛友山 （辛酉山）

Xingjing 兴京

Xule Bao 胥乐保

Yaling E 牙令阿

yangshu zhizhao 养树执照

Yanle Bao 衍乐保

yiming shibian 移民实边

you gongsheng 优贡生

Yuan Sicheng 袁思诚

yuhuang 余荒

Zhang Zhihan 张之汉

Zhang Zuolin 张作霖

Zhao Demao 赵德懋

Zhao Yutian 赵余田

Zhao Zansan 赵赞三

Zhengshou guoyoulin guanlifei guize 《征收国有林管理费规则

Zhenxing linye gongsi 振兴林业公司

zhuangtou 庄头

Notes

¹ Zhang Yingqiang, Mucai zhi liudong; Du Zhengzhen, “Wanqing minguo shanlin suoyouquan de huode yu zhengming,” 78–91; Du Zhengzhen, Jindai shanqu shehui de xiguan, qiyue he quanli; and Zheng Zhenman, “Mingqing shiqi de linye jingji yu shanqu shehui,” 148–158.

² Kong Jingwei, “Qingchao tongzhi shiqi Dongbei guandi qidi de jingying he Xiang mindi zhuanhua,” 68–73; Yi Baozhong, “Chijin fanghuang yu Dongbei diqu ziben zhuyi de chansheng,” 32–36; James, “Land Use and Society in Manchuria and Inner Mongolia during the Qing Dynasty,” 503–530; and Isett, “Village Regulation of Property and the Social Basis for the Transformation of Qing Manchuria,” 124–186.

³ Chen Fuzeng, “Fusong xian yuanshen zaipei shilue,” 44; and Dandong shi minzu shiwu weiyuanhui minzu zhi bianzuan bangongshi, Dandong manzu zhi, 74–79.

⁴ Huang Jiayuan, Changbai shanqu kaifa shigao, 14–18.

⁵ Jonathan Schlesinger argues that the Qing court deliberately constructed artificial “nature” in the forests of Northeast China and Mongolia to preserve the material and identity privileges of the Manchus and Mongols by prohibiting immigrants from entering the mountains to cultivate them. See Schlesinger, A World Trimmed with Fur, 168–170.

⁶ Jilinsheng difangzhi bianzuan weiyuanhui, Jilin shengzhi linye zhi, 22.

⁷ Xu Jingwen, Donggou Xianzhi, 1040.

⁸ Wang Gesheng, Qingdai dongbei tudi zhidu shi, 90.

⁹ Minami Manshū Tetsudō Kabushiki Kaisha Sōmubu Jimukyoku Chōsaka, Manshū Kyūkan Chōsa Hōkokusho Zenpen no Uchi Ippan Minchi, 136.

¹⁰ Zhang Jian quanji bianzuan weiyuanhui, Zhang Jian quanji, vol. 1, 313.

¹¹ “Sun Huanzhang, Wang Weiling cheng” [Submissions by Sun Huanzhang and Wang Weiling], April 17, 1921, Minguo dang’an [Archives of Republican China], file no. JC010-01-27952.

¹² Dandong shi minzu shiwu weiyuanhui minzuzhi bianzuan bangongshi, Dandong manzu zhi, 76.

¹³ “Qiao Wanfu, Huang Baoshan, Tang Naifu, Yin Shixiu, Bi Xude cheng” [Submissions by Qiao Wanfu, Huang Baoshan, Tang Naifu, Yin Shixiu, and Bi Xude], September 11, 1920, Minguo dang’an [Archives of Republican China], file no. JC010-01-7789.

¹⁴ In the Qing era, the land and house transactions related to forests were generally written on deeds with clauses such as “all trees and plants of small and large sizes are included.” See Long Denggao, Zhongguo chuantong diquan zhidu jiqi bianqian, 24.

¹⁵ “Ōryokukō shinrin kōshō,” 37–38.

¹⁶ Wang Changfu, Dongbei jindai linye jingjishi, 126.

¹⁷ “Guoyoulin zhangcheng” [National Forest Regulations], June 1, 1928, Minguo dang’an [Archives of Republican China], file no. JC010-01-004,559.

¹⁸ “Qingli Fengtian guoyoulin jianzhang” [Regulations for the Clearance of National Forests in Fengtian], February 27, 1919, Minguo dang’an [Archives of Republican China], file no. JC010-01-7789.

¹⁹ “Zhao Zansan cheng” [Submission by Zhao Zansen], December 15, 1927, Minguo dang’an [Archives of Republican China], file no. JC010-01-004,583. Some scholars have pointed out that the practice of the Bureau of Reclamation was positive for maintaining the social order of the region. See Yoshiki Enatsu, “Establishment of the Modern Land System,” 101–102.

²⁰ “Other” in this context includes extortion, malicious prosecution by hired loggers, and business rumors in the timber trade.

²¹ “Qiao Wanfu, Huang Baoshan, Tang Naifu, Yin Shixiu, Bi Xude cheng” [Submissions by Qiao Wanfu, Huang Baoshan, Tang Naifu, Yin Shixiu, and Bi Xude Minguo dang’an], September 11, 1920, Minguo dang’an [Archives of Republican China], file no. JC010-01-7789.

²² “Tan Guohuan cheng” [Submission by Tan Guohuan], October 3, 1919, Minguo dang’an [Archives of Republican China], file no. JC010-01-7789.

²³ “Dongsansheng xunyueshi Fengtian dujun jian shengzhang Zhangshuai huifu” [Reply from Zhang Shuai, Inspector of the Three Eastern Provinces, Military Governor of Fengtian and Provincial Governor of Fengtian], December 24, 1920, Minguo dang’an [Archives of Republican China], file no. JC010-01-7789.

²⁴ “Shiye ting, quansheng qingzhangju, gexian zhishi wei shenming baoling senlin Huangdi banfa an” [The Department of Industry, the Provincial Investigation and Survey Bureau, and the Magistrates of Each Counties Explaining the Method of Claiming Forested Wasteland], Minguo dang’an [Archives of Republican China], file no. JC010-01-7789.

²⁵ Yoshiyuki Aihara, “Forests as Commons in Early Modern China,” 283–284.

²⁶ “Yin Shixiu cheng” [Submission by Yin Shixiu], May 19, 1920, Minguo dang’an [Archives of Republican China], file no. JC010-01-001313.

^{27 “}Meng Fanglin cheng” [Submission by Meng Fanglin], July 17, 1920, Minguo dang’an [Archives of Republican China], file no. JC010-01-001313.

²⁸ “Tong Baoquan cheng” [Submission by Tong Baoquan], August 12, 1920, Minguo dang’an [Archives of Republican China], file no. JC010-01-001313.

²⁹ “Hao Jiaofang cheng” [Submission by Hao Jiaofang], September 15, 1928, Minguo dang’an [Archives of Republican China], file no. JC010-01-12654.

³⁰ “Hao Jiaofang cheng” [Submission by Hao Jiaofang], August 10, 1928, Minguo dang’an [Archives of Republican China], file no. JC010-01-12654.

³¹ “Cheng wei jubao E Guisen chengsu Hao Jiaofang, E Quanyin wei Benxi xian Huangxiangyu linchang jiuge” [Submission to Report E Guisen and E Wuanyin Suing Hao Jiaofang over the Huangxiangyu Forest Entanglement of Benxi County], February 19, 1929, Minguo dang’an [Archives of Republican China], file no. JC010-01-12654.

³² “Shuli Benxi xian zhishi Bai Shangchun chengwei jufu Zhao Zansan jianbao shangxia Wolonggou dengchu huangshan” [Acting Benxi County Magistrate Bai Shangchun’s Submission as a Reply to Zhao Zansan Who Claimed the Upper and Lower Wolonggou Wasteland Mountains], January 6, 1928, Minguo dang’an [Archives of Republican China], file no. JC010-01-004583.

³³ “Zhang Zhihan chengwei zunling heyi Xingjing xian zhuan ju Wu Wenqi baoling Dabeigou senlin yi an” [Zhang Zhihan’s Submission for Compliance with the Order to Investigate the Xingjing County’s Forest Dispute of Wu Wenqi, Who Claimed the Dabeigou Forest], May 15, 1925, Minguo dang’an [Archives of Republican China], file no. JC010-01-7771.

³⁴ “Tian Zhiye cheng” [Submission by Tian Zhiye], Minguo dang’an [Archives of Republican China], file no. JC010-01-7771.

^{35 “}Zhang Zhihan cheng” [Submission by Zhang Zhihan], August 3, 1926, Minguo dang’an [Archives of Republican China], file no. JC010-01-7771.

³⁶ “Xingjing xian zhixian Su Xianyang cheng” [Submission by Su Xianyang, Magistrate of Xingjing County], Minguo dang’an [Archives of Republican China], file no. JC010-01-7771.

³⁷ Liaoning senlin bianji weiyuanhui, Liaoning senlin, 58, 60.

³⁸ See Toshio Hagino, Chōsen Manshū Taiwan Ringyō Hattatsu Shiron, 136; and Fedman, Seeds of Control.

³⁹ The national forests of the United States are located on lands once used by Indian tribes for seasonal hunting and gathering. See Catton, American Indians and National Forests.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Xiang CHI

CHI Xiang is assistant professor at the Institute of Modern History, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences. Her research focuses on the economic and environmental history of modern Northeast China, with particular emphasis on the national forest system, international trade of Manchurian timber, and labor practices in Northeast China’s woodlands. Her representative publications include “Linye heyi cheng ‘ju’: Qingmo xinzheng shiye xia de Jilin quansheng linye zongju” [How Did Forestry Become a “Bureau”: The Jilin Provincial Forestry Bureau in the Perspective of Late Qing New Policies] (Qinghua daxue xuebao (zhexue shehui kexue ban) [Journal of Tsinghua University (Philosophy and Social Sciences)], no. 3 (2019): 133–154) and “Wanqing shiqi Dongbei linmu yu Zhongguo beifang shichang de mucai maoyi jingzheng” [Manchurian Timber and the Timber Trade Competition in the North Chinese Market] (Qingshi yanjiu [The Qing History Journal], no. 6 (2021): 6–17).