Climate resilient urban regeneration and SDG 11 – stakeholders’ view on pathways and digital infrastructures

ABSTRACT

Urban areas grapple with escalating challenges due to climate change, rapid urbanisation, and shifting demographics. Collaborative efforts and innovative applications of big earth data analytics and digital infrastructures are imperative in tackling the issues facing cities and advancing SDG 11.

Modernising urban infrastructure is essential, coupled with a focus on people-centric urban regeneration to enhance the well-being of city residents. Urban resilience, encompassing diverse social, economic, environmental, and governance facets, lies at the core of this mission. A resilient city can endure and recover from disruptions, be they natural disasters or human-made crises.

Stakeholder engagement, bridging top-down and bottom-up approaches, is pivotal in fostering the use of earth data to promote sustainability and urban resilience. A literature review and on-going research underscores digital infrastructure's potential in fortifying resilient, sustainable cities. Insights from an international forum on ‘Digital Infrastructure for Climate Resilience’ held in Melbourne, Australia in 2023 inform this perspective.

Big earth data analytics combined with Urban Digital Twin technologies, emerge as potent tools for urban stakeholders and decision-makers. Despite challenges, opportunities abound to leverage data and digital platforms to bolster sustainable urban development. Effective leadership, government regulations, standards, and cross-sector collaboration are essential for realising this potential.

KEYWORDS:

• Urban resilience
• big earth data
• Sustainable Development Goals
• SDG 11
• Urban Digital Twin

1. Introduction

In the face of global environmental, social and economic challenges posed by climate change, rapid urbanisation, population growth and changing demographics, urban practitioners and decision-makers are utilising innovative digital technologies to address these multifaceted issues. These current challenges disproportionally affect vulnerable communities often indigenous people and those facing social and economic disadvantage, low incomes and risks of financial and food insecurity (Agboola et al. 2023). Adapting and mitigating the impacts of climate change is a crucial aspect of urban planning and sustainable development. Mitigation actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions largely focus on energy efficiency, transition to renewables and increased access to public transport combined with more sustainable land administration and planning. While, adaptation measures, often outlined in municipal preparedness plans, seek to increase resilience through societal and physical interventions to equip communities to better withstand hazards and disasters and to improve overall health and wellbeing (CoM 2024). Examples of direct adaptation measures include changes to natural environments and the urban fabric to reduce heat gain through material selection, insulation, cool roofs, additional planting and works to mitigate flooding and conserve water (Agboola and Tunay 2023). Spatial technologies and web-based applications can be used to forecast and monitor the implementation of nature-based solutions to restore ecosystems and increase biodiversity and to plan and design sustainable capital projects. Delivering green urban infrastructure can enhance both the socioeconomics and the physical environment of cities and lead to improvements in the physical and mental health of urban populations (Marinou et al. 2023). The implementation of innovative technologies can promote sustainable urban development and benefit communities located in cities within both developed and developing countries.

Resilient city building is increasingly utilising smart real-time technologies integrating big earth data, remote and on-site sensing, incorporating geo-spatial data and urban analytics to improve the economic, social and environmental performance of urban systems and benefit sustainable community building. Over the last decade urban planners have become increasingly reliant upon efficient and accurate big earth data, Geospatial Information Systems (GIS) and urban analytics to monitor and better understand cities and to plan for smart and sustainable urban interventions including people-centric urban regeneration. The application of geospatial data in the development of sustainability and strategic planning policy, projects and city management are set to continue and evolve. The integration of remote and place-based digital sensing is facilitating an increasing number of dynamic observations of movements and transactions associated with the complex operations of urban life in cities (Bibri 2018). The application of urban analytics and new and innovative digital infrastructure platforms presents significant opportunities to integrate the latest developments in Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) to organise socio-technical data recognising the different roles of multiple actors to achieve consistency, stability and highly functioning governance arrangements (Qiu, Lv, and Chan 2022). Modernising urban infrastructure systems combined with the implementation of people centric urban regeneration policies and plans support the crucial role of cities in building the resilience of urban populations and developing a sustainable future for all.

Enthusiasm abounds within government, business and industry for the opportunity presented by the development of more sustainable and ‘resilient cities’ (McCauley 2023). Combined with this, is growing interest on the part of research institutions, government and Non-Government Organisations (NGOs) for the contribution of digitalisation in resilient city building and progressing the implementation of the United Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), including the so-called city goal, SDG 11 ‘Sustainable Cities and Communities’. The SDGs are a framework of 17 goals, 169 targets and 232 interactive indicators adopted by all UN member states in 2015 as a pathway to a globally sustainable future, with no one left behind (UN 2015). The aim of the SDGs is to improve overall human health and wellbeing, address the impacts of climate change, reduce inequality, eradicate poverty and improve education, environmental protection and global economic conditions (Allan et al. 2021; UN 2015). In 2016 the New Urban Agenda (NUA) was adopted by the UN to guide implementation of SDG 11 setting out an agreed vision for ‘a better and more sustainable future – one in which all people have rights and access to the benefits and opportunities cities can offer … ’ (UN NUA 2016, p iv). The SDGs were conceived to be implemented holistically within 15 years, despite considerable efforts it is evident that the SDGs will not now be achieved either comprehensively or consistently in all places by 2030 (Arora and Mishra 2019; UN 2023). Although the program to implement the SDGs is considerably off-track, the agreement reached by 193 member states in 2015 remains significant. The UN has announced that 42 countries are scheduled to report on their Voluntary National Reviews (VNRs) in July 2024. The SDGs remain a key component of a globally sustainable future, critically reliant upon increased efforts by developed and developing countries alike, and additional cooperation and collaboration.

A climate and biodiversity emergency has been declared by scores of cities worldwide including by the City of Melbourne in 2019. These declarations recognise the serous risk to life on the planet from the impacts of climate change. The forecast changes will see more frequent extreme weather events, such as heatwaves, more severe bush fires and smoke, more intense storms, flooding and rising sea levels. These physical phenomena and the social impacts are increasing the pressure on governments, city administrators and urban planners to make more informed decisions to better plan for a sustainable future for cities and to improve the health and wellbeing of urban populations. Participatory planning in the design, delivery, and future management of the public realm in urban regeneration projects is more likely to lead to successful long-term outcomes if undertaken applying top-down and bottom-up approaches to engage with stakeholders (Ellery, Ellery, and Borkowsky 2021). Community engagement is a key requirement of successful and sustainable urban renewal and regeneration programs. These programs seek to address a range of challenges including declining economic performance and poor social conditions often bought about by urban or environmental degradation (Roberts, Sykes, and Granger 2016). Decision makers, including those in local government, are looking for new and efficient ways to collect, manage and use increasingly larger and larger amounts of information and data. Digital big earth data and urban analytics are being utilised to engage stakeholders, benchmark and monitor city performance, deliver services and improve urban resilience and liveability.

2. Methodology

The methodology applied in the preparation of this article involved a review of recent literature, and synthesis of views and observations utilising the authors’ roles as leading researchers and urban practitioners. Additionally, feedback from an expert panel critiquing a poll conducted among delegates at an international forum centred on ‘Digital Infrastructure for Climate Resilience’ was considered and summarised. The central research question driving this paper relates to the potential for big earth data and digital infrastructures to support urban regeneration projects, addressing urban challenges, fostering climate resilience and advancing SDG 11 Sustainable Cities and Communities. Insights are also drawn from informal interviews with researchers, expert practitioners and local government officials involved in organising the international forum drawing on pertinent sustainability programs, policies and projects in Melbourne. Recordings of the panel discussions addressing ‘Pathways to Climate Resilience’ (including Panel 2, runtime circa 65 min) are available online via The University of Melbourne, Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology, Centre for Spatial Data Infrastructures and Land Administration website.

3. Key concepts

3.1. SDG 11, sustainable cities and communities

The enormous growth of cities in recent decades and the impacts of climate change are increasing the pressure on populations, biodiversity, and the resources of the planet (UN-Habitat 2020). The increasing vulnerability of our cities to a range of human and natural risks presents significant challenges related to climate change, accelerated urbanisation, political instability, military conflicts, impacts of the COVID-19 global pandemic, and so on. The planning and operation of cities, now and into the future, to meet these challenges is of crucial importance. As cities accommodate most of the world’s population, they are the principal human habitat, thus their resilience and sustainability are inherently linked to that of the planet (Blanco 2018).

The implementation of the SDGs at the local level presents several significant challenges. While the NUA provides an approach to implement SDG 11, it does not contain sufficient practical guidance to effectively action the goals at the local level (Giles-Corti, Lowe, and Arundel 2020). The impact and influence of SDG11 on the development of sustainable cities and communities is dependent upon skilful implementation. Several cities, including Melbourne (CoM 2022), are localising targets and indicators to address local interrelated systems (e.g. housing, mixed land use, transport, and environment etc.). A key factor in sustainable development is integrating outputs and connecting people and activities (Hosagrahar et al. 2016). Integrating and monitoring the performance of the SDGs at the local level can benefit from adaptation and alignment with existing city planning policies and measurement regimes (SDSN 2019). The 10 targets and 15 interrelated indicators of SDG 11 seek to define the ‘ideal sustainable city’ and although intended to be actioned holistically, the variability of city morphologies means that disaggregating and or grouping SDG targets/indicators can aid analysis, monitoring, implementation and reporting.

The use of smart city technologies, innovative digital platforms and big earth data systems and analysis can assist in the development of targeted responses to address urban challenges, and build more resilient and economically, socially and environmentally sustainable cities. Big earth data utilising high-resolution remote imagery can be directly and indirectly applied to at least three of the SDG 11 indicators to monitor and evaluate changes. These include SDG 11.1.1 (informal housing settlements), SDG 11.3.1 (population to land ratios and land use efficiency) and SDG 11.4.1 (cultural and heritage conservation). Further development of data systems, infrastructures and new indexes can fine-tune observations of human interventions and advance SDG 11 (Guo 2022). The application of big earth data to monitor and analyse broader socio-economic and environmental parameters associated with these numerous urban challenges is scientifically complicated. Despite this complexity, utilising big earth data and innovative analytics to address multi-layered urban problems is advancing rapidly. Multidisciplinary engagement and targeted education to integrate the skill sets of urban practitioners (urban planners, researchers, decision makers, etc.) with technological scientists (engineers, scholars, GIS and ICT experts, etc.) offers strong potential to fulfill the promise of big data (Piyushimita, Tilahun, and Zellner 2017). There is increasing capacity and potential for new and innovative technologies to be applied to improve urban sustainability and build more resilient cities. These technologies are evolving in sophistication allowing more effective and efficient information data gathering and analysis. This is facilitating the development of urban policy, improving data driven decision-making and the optimisation of urban operations, climate change monitoring, disaster risk reduction, energy, food and water security (Bibri 2019; Themistocleous et al. 2020).

3.2. Urban resilience

The concept of urban resilience is an evolving one and much like cities is complex, dynamic and includes multidimensional (social, economic and environmental) factors involving a range of political and administrative institutions, industries and sectors. Definitions of ‘urban resilience’ vary, considered in its constituent parts, ‘urban’ generally refers to a town, city or built-up area with ‘resilience’ a capacity to withstand or recover. The term urban resilience is applied ubiquitously across a range of settings and contexts and interpreted differently depending upon the jurisdiction, and government, NGO, academic domains and commercial sectors involved. At the global level the UN describe urban resilience as the ‘ability of city dwellers to withstand economic, social, health and environmental disaster and climate related risks’ (UN 2022). ‘Fundamentally, a resilient city is a city that can withstand and bounce back from disaster’ (UN 2023).

In 2023, Economist Impact released its Resilient Cities Index – A Global Benchmark of Urban Risk, Response and Recovery. This report outlines a comparative analysis of urban resilience across twenty-five cities investigating the preparedness to withstand and recover from disruption and examining a range of environmental, social, and economic factors in addition to critical infrastructure and socio-institutional dynamics. Economist Impact defines urban resilience as ‘a city’s ability to avoid, withstand and recover from shocks, such as natural disasters: and from long-term stresses such as poverty, decrepit infrastructure or migration. A ‘resilient city should be able to self-organise following a shock event, adapt to unfolding risks and plan ahead rather than react’ (Economist Impact and Tokio Marine Group 2023). Presenting the analysis as a comparative index, each city is ranked for its overall resilience in priority order from first to 25th. There are clear limitations in ranking performance in this way, however, the authors argue the methodology is intended to identify gaps and generate dialogue between cities to highlight areas of mutual concern and future action. At the local government level, cities typically apply their own definitions, the City of Melbourne, for example, describes urban resilience as ‘the capacity of individuals, communities, institutions, businesses and systems within a city to adapt, survive, and thrive no matter what kind of chronic stresses and acute shocks we experience, and to positively transform as a result’ (Lowe et al. 2021, 1).

Adding temporal and geographic scales to the multiple (social, economic and environmental) dimensions typically considered in urban resilience strategies can highlight interdependencies, measures to increase urban sustainability and potential application to cities (Chelleri et al. 2015). Approaches to build resilience and long-term sustainable urban outcomes are more likely to be successful if undertaken applying collaborative, inclusive engagement involving a full range of government, private sector and community stakeholders (Agboola, Ojobo, and Aliyev 2023).

3.3. People-centric urban regeneration

Urban regeneration is a multifaceted approach involving a series of interventions to address numerous urban challenges (Elkadi 2020). Roberts, Sykes, and Granger (2016, 18) defines urban regeneration as ‘comprehensive and integrated vision and action which seeks to resolve urban problems and bring lasting improvement in the economic, physical, social and environmental conditions of an area that has been subject to change or offers opportunities for improvement.’ Through the revitalisation of degraded urban areas, former industrial or brownfield sites, urban regeneration provides a means to action sustainable urban development, progress SDG 11 and to present physical improvements and socio-economic benefits to cities and urban populations (Opoku and Akotia 2020).

People-centric urban regeneration projects are urban-based interventions typically led by the public sector, embracing best practice participatory planning and the direct involvement of communities in the decisions that affect them. Critical to their effectiveness is extensive stakeholder engagement aimed at driving substantial improvements in the economic, physical, social and environmental well-being of local communities in places suffering from urban problems (McCarthy and Leary 2013; Roberts, Sykes, and Granger 2016). Moreover, people-centric urban regeneration strategies prioritise the community and incorporate holistic urban planning principles such as, compact city design, mixed-use 15-minute neighbourhoods, ample green spaces and convenient access to services including public transport. This combined with the implementation of new climate resilient infrastructures and technologies can improve liveability and the physical and mental wellbeing of urban dwellers (Bil, Buława, and Świerzawski 2021). When well-planned and delivered in partnership with engaged stakeholders these projects are an important component in the suite of urban strategies and spatial policies actionable at national, regional and local government levels to build the resilience and sustainability of cities and communities (SDG 11).

3.4. Top-down and bottom-up strategic urban policy settings

Given the challenges of sustainable urban development and the complexity of implementing international and national goals at a city level it is important to build upon the strong correlations between these global and local (‘glocal’) issues (Allan et al. 2021). Top-down and bottom-up analysis is particularly relevant in preparing and implementing sustainable development policies and projects, with these inherently different approaches combining inputs and outputs at various levels and involving different jurisdictions. Top-down standards are typically developed and applied systematically while bottom-up indicators remain largely abstract with limited methodological reference (Pissourios 2014). Comparing and contrasting ‘glocal’ standards highlights the hierarchy of various policies, performance assessment mechanisms, rating tools and projects and the importance of contextualising these. This approach is summarised as an illustration in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Top-down and bottom-up strategic urban policy settings.

3.5. Digital twin

Digital Twin platforms were originally developed in the aerospace, product design and manufacturing industries. The Digital Twin, ‘an information system with capabilities beyond Building Information Modelling (BIM), is intended to establish active, timely connection between physical and virtual realms for decision making at design, construction and maintenance stages’ (Davila Delgado and Oyedele 2021 in Chacón et al. 2023). The effectiveness of applying Digital Twin technologies to the built environment is debated by many in research, industry and government. Despite this, the technology is developing fast and in the past ten years technological advances have increased the capacity of government and industry to utilise data to make more informed decisions affecting urban populations. Combining technology and collaborative community engagement presents strong potential to contribute to the achievement of the SDGs (Tzachor et al. 2022).

4. Results

4.1. International forum – digital infrastructure for climate resilience, October 2023

This section outlines the findings from an international forum on digital infrastructures in the context of climate resilience. Developing and delivering climate resilient digital infrastructure involving citizens is vital to ensuring a socially integrated and interconnected world, equipping city dwellers to withstand economic, social and environmental disasters and climate related risks, contributing to a globally sustainable future. Responding to this challenge, The University of Melbourne's Centre for Spatial Data Infrastructure and Land Administration (CSDILA) in collaboration with the World Bank on 20th October 2023 held a one-day (on-line/in-person) international forum titled ‘Digital Infrastructure for Climate Resilience: Connecting Land, Energy and Infrastructure’ (the CSDILA-World Bank Forum), in Melbourne, Australia. In the words of the Forum Chair, Professor Abbas Rajabifard, the purpose of the event was ‘to bring industry leaders and experts nationally and internationally from the land, energy, and infrastructure sectors to exchange information and ideas regarding climate resilience and learn about the latest trends and technologies, including:

• Best practices – examples from industry where Digital Infrastructure is adding value.

• Challenges – the challenges, from standards, processes and policy to innovation and skills gaps for adopting Digital Infrastructure.

• Opportunities – the opportunities we can tackle, to advance our knowledge of technical innovations and enable growth and lead in Digital Infrastructure.’

Noting the ‘value of digital Infrastructure that optimises and improves planning and design through the management and operation of climate-resilient precincts cannot be realised without considering Land, Energy, and Infrastructure. To achieve this, we require a seamless digital connectivity that interacts among those isolated sectors through an open ecosystem’ (CSDILA 2023). The CSDILA-World Bank Forum was attended by over 350 delegates with approximately 150 in person, the balance online with over 100 different organisations represented from universities, research institutions, governments, NGOs, industry groups and firms.

Over 40 presentations were made at the CSDILA-World Bank Forum, recordings from these sessions are available online (CSDILA 2023a). In summary the program included Session (1) Welcoming addresses from senior representatives of the host organisations, a keynote from the Chair of ANZLIC (Australian and New Zealand Land Information Council) and presentations on ‘Land and Climate Resilience’. Session (2) focussed on ‘Energy and Climate Resilience’, Session (3) ‘Infrastructure and Climate Resilience’ involving two panels on the topic of ‘Strategic Pathways Towards Climate Resilience’. In Session (4) Technical Showcase presentations from industry representatives and vendor firms outlined current digital infrastructure products and projects (CSDILA 2023). The organisers received positive feedback from delegates acknowledging the contribution to knowledge, policy, and practice provided by the forum.

A series of observations were drawn from the CSDILA-World Bank Forum in particular the opportunity and value in capturing and validating land and geospatial information and the contribution this can make towards climate resilience. In addition, presenters and delegates expressed enthusiasm about interdisciplinary collaboration and the benefits of integrating digital data to facilitate decision-making utilising a range of innovative digital technology and new applications in infrastructure, renewable energy, and land administration. Challenges associated with the impacts from climate change and inequitable access to digital technologies were discussed, together with the opportunities for innovation to advance the development of sustainable infrastructures to address climate resilience. Cross-sectoral engagement and placing people at the centre of technology emerged as a key theme combined with the need to build skill sets through further research, education and training. There was a strong call for government leadership in areas of regulation, democratising data sets and increasing strategic multidisciplinary collaboration – to bring government, academia and industry together. Several projects were presented outlining the practical application of spatial technology to better manage energy use, conserve the environment, increase biodiversity and promote all aspects of sustainability (economic, social, environmental) and governance. Capitalising on rapid advances in the capture of digital geospatial data, land administration processes and developed countries sharing knowledge was identified as a major opportunity to make the planet more resilient and to improve human health and wellbeing. Examples of Digital Twin technologies from Australia and internationally were presented opening a range of potential new and innovative applications to manage urban complexity, benefit city dwellers and improve the lives of people.

4.2. Expert panel 2 – ‘Strategic pathways towards climate resilience’

Two multidisciplinary panels comprised of experts from land, geospatial, climate/environment, and infrastructure were formed for the CSDILA-World Bank Forum and addressed the topic of ‘Strategic Pathways Towards Climate Resilience’ and participated in Q&A sessions. These moderated panel discussions were recorded (CSDILA 2023a). During Panel 2 a live audience poll was reviewed capturing analysis of the expert panel comprised of three women and four men (including a discussant/moderator) all senior leaders in their respective industry, government and research fields. For this panel one expert was based in Southern Africa with the balance from across Australia. The format of this international forum included in-person attendance of five experts located in Melbourne, Australia, with two panellists joining online. Delegates were both in attendance and on-line from around the world. Australia was the focal point of the discussion, although panellists bought a wealth of worldwide experience in urban and geospatial planning and management, land administration and governance applicable to developed and developing countries. Members of Panel 2 are shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Photo, CSDILA-World Bank Forum Expert Panel 2 Members. Seated left to right, Mr Mark Allan Chair (City of Melbourne), Dr Guillermo Narsilio (University of Melbourne), Ms Lisa Bush (Geoscience Australia), Dr Scott Rawlings (Office of the Commissioner of Environmental Sustainability Victoria), Mr Dean Capobianco (Geoscape Australia), Dr Gillian Sparkes AM (Commissioner of Environmental Sustainability Victoria (top screen)) Dr Clarissa Augustinus (Senior freelance consultant land and climate expert (bottom screen)).

4.3. Views and observations – Poll of Forum delegates

CSDILA-World Bank Forum delegates (online and in-person) had a direct or indirect interest in sustainability, climate resilience, geospatial, land administration, energy, infrastructure and digital technologies and were invited to complete an anonymous and voluntary live poll online. The poll contained three questions/activities on the topic of the role of digital infrastructure in building urban resilience and the sustainable development of cities and the SDGs. Delegates were asked to answer two multiple choice questions and complete an activity requesting participants rank responses in priority order. A total of 35 unique responses were received from delegates of the CSDILA-World Bank Forum to the live online poll, the questions are contained in the table at Figure 3.

Figure 3. Table, Multiple-choice Questions asked in the Poll of CSDILA-World Bank Delegates, Panel 2.

The poll results were presented live on-screen and are reproduced in Figures 4–6. Panelists were asked to comment on the poll. Set out below are observations of the panel discussion (CSDILA 2023a).

Figure 4. Results of Poll Question One from CSDILA-World Bank Forum delegates.

Figure 5. Results of Poll Question Two from CSDILA-World Bank Forum delegates.

Figure 6. Results of Poll Question Three from CSDILA-World Bank Forum delegates.

4.3.1. Poll Question One

CSDILA-World Bank Forum delegates expressed a high level of optimism in the positive contribution digital technologies can make to urban resilience and the sustainable development of cities. Delegates were asked to select one of four options in answer to Question One, the question, options and results are shown in Figure 4.

Two thirds of the delegates chose option () indicating a level of confidence that technologies can be developed and implemented by 2030. A third were equivocal selecting option (b) ‘maybe technologies can be developed but barriers to implementation make it difficult.’ None of the delegates chose option (c) implying the barriers to implementation were neither too numerous nor too difficult to be overcome.

When asked to comment on this result, while there was some later debate from panellists, in general the panel was not surprised by the outcome and the optimism expressed by delegates. Panellists noted that technology and data are enablers to decision making and action, recognising the importance of the context and timeframe in which the data is collected, monitored, and analysed. Citing the criticality of real time data for the monitoring of weather and air quality, and infrastructure conditions, for example. This was also important in understanding how changes in an environment impacts operational situations and capabilities to manage risk and optimise and direct resources. Noting that information and data is required to flow into early warning systems etc. in real time for optimal results. This is also true of managing data flows to help forecast outcomes and predict when events might happen and to better manage responses and plan for future events. Capturing similar data through technology and directing this to Digital Twin platforms has potential to improve the planning, development, and maintenance of early warning systems, resilience and preparedness programs.

Other views noted advances in the utilisation of digital information and data. Examples were cited in Victoria, Australia, during 2022, when digital technologies were used to assist agencies to analyse environmental information and prepare for and manage responses to floods and inundation. Other applications include scheduling of controlled burns (to reduce forest fuel loads), public communications about extreme heat events, and the development of strategies to mitigate the impacts of urban heat islands. These applications are being incorporated into digital platforms including Digital Twins. Reporting by governments is enhanced using these technologies with outputs from environmental and spatial monitoring incorporated with other parameters to produce more integrated and comprehensive reports and improve response times.

4.3.2. Poll Question Two

Poll Question Two, multiple choice options and results are shown in Figure 5. CSDILA-World Bank Forum delegates were asked to select the phase of a hazard when digital technologies offer the most support. Delegates overwhelmingly identified the potential of digital technologies to contribute to urban resilience/sustainability prior to a hazard occurring as the most beneficial, enabling actors to plan and prepare ahead of time.

As noted above, the majority (59 percent) of delegates chose option (a) identifying with the strong potential of digital technologies to act as an enabler to prepare and plan for the disruption ahead of the hazard occurring. The balance of votes was spread evenly, at 14, 13 and 14 percent for options (b), (c) and (d) respectfully, indicating less support for the enabling potential of technology ‘during’, ‘shortly after’ or ‘post’ the hazard.

One of the panellists noted limitations from the wording of the question which may have favoured selection of option (a) but agreed that actions undertaken prior to the hazard have the greatest impact in terms of enabling climate resilient infrastructure. Commenting that you don't build infrastructure while dealing with a hazard (or shortly after). Analysis post hazard is used to prepare for the next one, reinforcing the view expressed by delegates of the necessity to plan and prepare ahead of the event.

Consistent across those experts questioned was a view that digital technologies have a role across all four phases (Prior, to plan/prepare, During, to absorb/respond, Shortly after, to recover and Post the event, to adapt). The Australian government, like those of other countries, implement a range of different initiatives to respond to disasters at various stages of hazardous events. During the hazard, data and information is coordinated through the national situation room of the National Emergency Management Agency (NEMA). Information captured and analysed shortly after or post the hazardous event is utilised by several agencies such as the Australian Climate Service. Recovery actions and future planning is also undertaken by NEMA and Australia’s Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water (DCCEEW) and Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRIO). This includes, for example, national bushfire mapping completed in collaboration with these agencies utilising digital technologies in all aspects. It was noted, that if we want to build resilient infrastructure this is best done ahead of the actual hazardous event.

Another view, while supporting the obvious planning and preparation capability of digital technologies to contribute to urban resilience, challenged delegates to consider how best to apply Digital Twins both During and Shortly After the Hazard. The capacity of institutions and agencies will be assisted even more in these areas as computational power is further developed facilitating increased access to almost real time data through the Internet of Things (IoT), for example. The capacity to make decisions in real-time through quick simulations is outstripping old technology which simply wasn’t fast enough. Advances in computational technologies including utilisation of Artificial Intelligence (AI) will in the future facilitate increasingly rapid responses to scenarios in near to real time.

Looking beyond Australia there are some significant advances being made by the European Union Copernicus Land Monitoring Service (CLMS). Copernicus Sentinel satellites capture earth observation data and make this available for free for those who can't afford it. Providing access to this kind of technology and presented as dashboards is important for developing countries for use in a range of settings, including for example, to monitor global sea level rise. Being able to access this technology is crucial in all four phases (Prior, to plan/prepare, During, to absorb/respond, Shortly after, to recover and Post the event, to adapt) because in the future, our world cities are going to become the ‘safety valves’ of the planet. Panellists offered the view that collaboration and information sharing by leading agencies will assist global efforts in developing and applying digital technologies to build urban resilience globally.

4.3.3. Poll Question Three

When asked to rank barriers to implementation (1st biggest to 6th smallest) from six options CSDILA-World Bank Forum delegates identified ‘regulation and government policy’ first, followed by ‘data availability, quality, quantity and standards.’ The results of Poll Question Three are shown in Figure 6.

Panellists questioned on this activity agreed strongly that regulation and government policy was the biggest barrier but one that could be overcome with effort. Views expressed suggested that the technology is available ‘but it's about putting in place those key enablers to harness that technology’. Increased government leadership to make data more openly available was also identified as a priority. The Australian government is aware that most data is collected at the local scale. Action is required to integrate and make available data sets at all levels of government, local, state and national and globally. Assembling national data sets is difficult and the panellists shared the view that this was most likely to be successfully achieved through a combination of ‘carrots and sticks’ (incentives and regulation) administered by responsive agencies with strong governance arrangements in place. In Australia and elsewhere, mechanisms are not yet in place to either dictate or entice the consistent use, collection, creation, management, storage, or to share data effectively. While pockets of excellence exist, expanding these across Australia requires new nationally consistent and robust standards and governance arrangements.

Another challenge identified was the availability of funding for the development and deployment of digital infrastructure to meet requirements and build urban resilience. Investment by governments and others into research and development is a critical component. There are also discrepancies between the digital platforms utilised by wealthy countries and those available to poorer nations, regions and cities. Inequitable digital connectivity and privacy are other key issues, noting that not everyone has access to the IoT, nor do all cities, towns and citizens share high quality, secure digital access.

Developing and applying government policy is both a challenge and an opportunity. Local and state level actions can be directed to respond to some of the impacts of climate change and to increase biodiversity assisted through the setting of specific targets. There is a significant opportunity to link innovation with digital tools and the use of data to demonstrate how we can get traction and progress these targets. Partnerships are crucial and offer potential for the development of actions both top-down and bottom-up. Reporting agencies work closely with NGOs and collaborate and engage with First Nations people, Traditional Owners and other stakeholders and community members bringing together and synthesising knowledge. A great deal of value information is generated by NGOs and citizens scientists.

Consensus on climate change modelling was ranked low by delegates coming in sixth place. Technology and skills development is a key issue across business and industry sectors, despite being placed as a low priority in the poll. A range of digital technologies are already in place and being developed rapidly and while this is positive, building awareness of these technologies and how they can be applied is also important, as is developing training to increase skill sets.

Regulation and policies combined with government leadership is critical in the delivery of climate projects. Governments play a pivotal leadership role, not only through communications but by putting in place processes that foster conversations, collaboration and engagement with stakeholders to progress and create the products that are necessary. Climate resilience involves reorganising and adapting a range of systems. This includes land administration systems, organising the analysis of climate data for example, and adapting systems and technologies for applications like futuristic Digital Twins. An informed and ongoing dialogue requires having the right stakeholders in the room over a sustained period to develop integrated and coordinated strategies. This coordination cannot just rely upon ‘public – private’ cooperation as joint ‘public – public’ action is equally necessary with collaboration across all sectors crucial in progressing global actions and achieving the SDGs.

4.3.4. Summary findings

The panels’ discussion of the poll underscores the crucial role digital technologies play in enhancing climate resilient infrastructures and promoting sustainable urban development. While the dialogue primarily focussed on Australia, the issues identified have implications which are far-reaching and applicable to cities worldwide including those in developing countries.

• Now is the time to act – despite some barriers to implementation, digital technologies can enhance climate resilient infrastructures as enablers of sustainable development in cities in the short term to 2030.

• Plan and prepare ahead of hazardous events – digital technologies can facilitate climate resilient infrastructures and contribute to the sustainable development of cities and SDG 11, at all phases of a hazardous event. This includes, ‘post’ (to adapt), ‘shortly after’ (to recover), ‘during’ (to absorb/respond) with the greatest potential contribution identified as those actions undertaken ‘prior ‘to the hazard event or disruption occurring, to plan and prepare.

• Government leadership and regulation is required to facilitate implementation – the biggest barriers identified to the utilisation of digital technologies to enhance climate resilience and urban sustainability relate to a lack of government commitment (leadership and investment) in developing and implementing regulations, policies and standards and a lack of available quality data. To a lesser degree insufficient collaboration between sectors was identified as a barrier, together with communication barriers and restraints on citizen engagement. The availability and access to technology and skills were also seen as barriers. A lack of consensus on climate modelling was identified as only a minor barrier.

Prioritising the utilisation of digital technologies before the onset of a hazardous event can significantly enhance climate resilience with pre-emptive planning and preparation mitigating the impacts of disasters and hazards. Governments have a key leadership role to play in engaging with stakeholders and communities to develop guidelines and standards and to coordinate climate resilience actions and advancing the SDGs. This will require reorganising and adapting local policy settings and processes, for example, expanding internet connectivity, introducing open data platforms and modernising land administration and information systems. Global progress towards achieving the SDGs by 2030 is ‘woefully off track’ (UN 2023). However, there is optimism that digital technologies can accelerate progress in the closing half of the decade, advancing urban resilience and sustainability as outlined in SDG 11. Successful implementation of these integrated strategies relies upon effective partnerships between authorities, stakeholders and community members. Utilising big earth data and Digital Twin platforms can optimise modelling and visualisations. These models can help predict future urban scenarios with improved forecasting increasing disaster preparedness and actions to respond to climate change related impacts on cities such as floods, bushfires, sea level rise, urban heat islands and resources insecurity.

5. Discussion

5.1. Implementing the SDGs in the context of urban resilience

How plans and strategies to build the resilience of cities are prepared and implemented varies widely between individual cities and countries. This variation is due to a multiplicity of factors relating to culture, governance arrangements and the political settings applying in different jurisdictions and a variety of underlying socio-economic, geographic and demographic parameters. Despite national differences integrated land use and sustainable development planning is crucial if global challenges are to be addressed to ‘Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable’ (UN NUA 2016). Individual and collective targets within SDG 11, focus upon ‘participatory, integrated and sustainable human settlement planning and management in all countries’ together with the need to ‘strengthen national and regional development planning’ referenced in targets 11.3 and 11.A, respectively (UN 2015).

Three of the SDGs directly target urban resilience; firstly SDG 11 Sustainable Cities and Communities – to ‘make cities inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable’, secondly SDG 9 – Industry, Innovations and Infrastructure – to ‘build resilient infrastructure and sustainable industrialisation’ and thirdly SDG 13 Climate Action – to ‘take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts’. Indirectly other SDGs related to resilient cities include SDG 10 – ‘Reduced Inequalities’, SDG 16 – ‘Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions’, SDG 12 ‘Responsible Consumption and Production’ and SDG 7 – ‘Affordable Clean Energy to secure access to affordable, reliable sustainable and modern energy for all’ (Argyroudis et al. 2022; UN 2015). There are considerable challenges inherent in the practical implementation of the SDGs at a local level, principally because the SDGs are formulated as global goals with national and transnational targets. Some authors including Giles-Corti, Lowe, and Arundel 2020, contend that a more comprehensive set of city indicators with comparative city benchmarks is required to assist those in local government to monitor and implement policies to improve sustainability and resilience.

Australia is a high-income country situated in the Indo-Pacific region, it is a founding member of the UN and in 2015 one of 193 UN member states to formally agreed the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (the 2030 Agenda). In 2018 Australia produced its only Voluntary National Review of performance against the SDGs. Australia is a member of ‘The Group of Twenty’ (G20), an international economic cooperation forum comprised of the worlds’ premier economies (Australian Government 2024).

The SDGs present a comprehensive and integrated global assessment framework supporting national performance reporting. Currently the UN observe that the 2030 Agenda and achieving the SDGs is ‘off-track’ with countries progressing too slowly, impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic, military conflicts and multiple overlapping financial, socio-economic and environmental crises (UN 2023). The UN in 2024 observed that the annual progress of member countries is moving too slowly on average advancing only half a point per year since 2015. The UN produce an annual ranking of member country performance which includes an SDG Index score (0–100) indicating the percentage of total progress towards achieving all 17 SDGs. In 2023, Australia’s progress was ranked 37th of 166 countries with an SDG Index score of 76.88. This compares to Finland ranked 1st with a score of 86.35 and South Sudan the lowest with an SDG Index of 40.14 (Sachs, Lafortune, and Fuller 2024). Publishing SDG progress for individual countries, regions, and economic groups is intended to promote understanding and assist peers to prioritise and align actions.

Figure 7 illustrates the trend of SDG Index Scores for each of the G20 member countries since 2015, for context, averages for both the World, and the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) are also illustrated. Generally, the overall trend for G20 member countries (World and OECD averages) is increased progress in achieving the SDGs over time, albeit too slowly. It is evident that the G20 and high-income countries like Australia can and should do more to progress all 17 SDGs (Sachs et al. 2023).

Figure 7. SDG Index Scores G20 Member Countries 2015–2023 (Adapted from Sachs, Lafortune, and Fuller 2024).

Over the past five years, Australia’s progress towards achieving all SDG targets is ‘mixed’ with relatively strong performance in education, health and gender equality but limited progress for goals to address climate action and inequality (Allen et al. 2020; UN 2024). Australia is geographically located in the Pacific, a region highly vulnerable to the economic, environmental and social impacts of climate change including sea level rise and extreme weather events. Australia’s middling performance on climate action is a result of decades long neglect of integrated federal policy and a lack of national planning efforts (Brolan 2023). Without a significant increase in global policy commitments and investment in actions to deliver the 10 targets of SDG 11, the sustainable cities goal will not be achieved by 2030. In 2023, the UN reports that Australia is on track to achieve 50 per cent of all SDG targets with the balance indicating either ‘limited progress’ and or ‘worsening progress’, performance for SDG 11 remains ‘moderately improving.’ The UN-Habitat (2023), observed that Australia (and New Zealand) is included in a small number of regions close to achieving targets set out in indicators, (11.1.1) ‘ … proportion living in slums/informal settlements’, (11.2.1) ‘ … convenient access to public transport’, (11.6.1) ‘ … waste generation/management’ (11.6.2) ‘ … air quality … fine particulates’ and (11.7.1) ‘ … safe, open space for public use’ (UN-Habitat 2023).

Global and national action on all 17 SDGs is intended to be holistic and comprehensive, acknowledging that most goals including SDG 11 have individual and collective interrelationships with various goals, targets and indicators. The UN NUA observes that eleven of the SDGs have a specific urban component, refer Figure 8. Similarly, ten of the SDG 11 targets directly connect to all SDGs, this relationship occurring multiple times for some goals as illustrated in Figure 9. This highlights the interconnectedness of the SDGs in achieving SDG 11 together with the importance of cities in achieving a sustainable global future.

Figure 8. The eleven SDGs with an Urban Component (Adapted from UN NUA 2016).

Figure 9. Table, SDG 11 Targets and Linkages to other SDGs (Adapted from UN NUA 2016).

Localising the SDGs or applying selective groupings to individual projects can assist cities to respond to specific urban policy settings or program aims. Moallemi et al. 2020 proposes a participatory and transdisciplinary three-part model to aid implementation of the SDGs; (1) localising goals/targets, (2) evaluating uncertainties (those impacting achievement of goals) and (3) adapting pathways to implement the local goals with reduced uncertainty. In 2021, the City of Melbourne incorporated the SDGs into the Council Plan 2021–2025 and in the following year adopted the implementation of a Voluntary Local Review (VLR) of the SDGs, a first for an Australian city. The VLR has localised SDG targets of relevance to Melbourne, these bespoke local targets recognise national and regional contexts (CoM 2022). The Melbourne City Council has also developed a four-year local ‘Prepare Melbourne’ program. The program focusses on stakeholder engagement activities undertaken with community members to build resilience assessments and to develop and implement neighbourhood action plans. This is to ‘prepare residents and communities to enhance their resilience to hazards, disasters and the health impacts of climate change’ (CoM website 2024). Local actions are culturally sensitive and inter-generational and primarily aimed at building community connection, sharing local information, increasing the visibility of emergency and first responders, completing preparedness drills and so on.

Applying localised SDG targets to capital projects including urban regeneration projects is also an effective means of analysing sustainable performance and contributing to city-wide annual reviews of the SDGs. This approach has been taken for the $300 m (AUD) Greenline Project, a major people-centric urban regeneration project in central Melbourne. The project aims to transform four kilometres of public realm along the north bank of the Yarra River Birrarung and deliver economic and social benefits associated with environmental and ecological improvements to public riverside parks, open spaces, cycle and pedestrian pathways. Embracing First Nations culture and heritage and guided by a Master Plan the project is being delivered by the City of Melbourne (CoM 2024). A combination of project themes/objectives and localised SDG targets have been selected to analyse performance with a proof-of-concept Digital Twin planned for the project (Allan, Rajabifard, and Foliente 2024). Three of the SDGs selected for sustainable performance assessment for the Greenline Project (SDG 9, SDG 10 and SDG 11) are consistent with those identified as directly relevant to urban resilience by Argyroudis et al. 2022.

Increasing access to digital technologies presents numerous benefits to individuals and communities with potential to shape a greener and more sustainable urban future. Addressing research gaps related to the SDGs, and better organising information and applying data analytics will assist urban planners to inform, develop and apply urban policy and improve decision making (Del Río Castro, Fernandez, and Colsa 2021). Australia is a leader in progressing the ‘transformation to universal digital access and services’ (Sachs et al. 2023, 3). Government actions which seek to widen the provision of safe, secure and high-quality online services including communications, public safety warnings, telemedicine, finance and education can contribute to goal eleven and related SDGs. Aligning SDGs with relevant interrelated targets can assist in progress on action to access to the internet, digital and climate resilient infrastructures. For example, linking SDG 9, (Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure) SDG 13, (Climate Action) SDG 10, (Reduced Inequalities) SDG 16, (Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions) and SDG 7 (Affordable Clean Energy) with SDG 11 can focus actions on sustainable urban development technology and new innovative climate resilient infrastructures to benefit urban populations. Likewise, good governance and community engagement can facilitate delivery of targeted infrastructure (essential digital and on-line services, water and food security etc.) leveraging innovation, productivity and building social capital to ‘make cities inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable’ (UN NUA 2016; and Argyroudis et al. 2022). These relationships are illustrated conceptually in Figure 10.

Figure 10. SDGs contributing to Resilient Urban Infrastructures and SDG 11 (Adapted from Argyroudis et al. 2022; UN NUA 2016).

5.2. Urban digital twins

Concepts of urban resilience and cities are inherently dynamic and complex presenting a strong case for the use of Digital Twin platforms to manage large amounts of information data to improve city planning, administration and the delivery of services. The extent to which fully functioning Digital Twins can be applied to cities and urban regeneration projects is debated by researchers and urban practitioners, with some seeing unlimited potential while others suggest practical application is well beyond current and even future capabilities. The constantly changing nature of cities and communities, lead some scholars to question the possibility of a full functioning digital replica (or twin) of an urban precinct continually updated with accurate information data in real time capable of reflecting social-physical and socio-economic change (Batty 2018; Tomko and Winter 2019). Despite limitations there is considerable interest from research institutions, industry and government, even if the concept is not well understood, in the potential contribution Urban Digital Twin technology can make to urban resilience, the implementation of the SDGs, particularly SDG 11, and the overall sustainability of our cities. This potential includes improved capabilities to foster multidisciplinary collaboration, strategic planning, management, stakeholder engagement utilising scenario modelling, participatory (and feedback) activities, visualisations, dashboards and data communications. In addition, Digital Twins can be applied to gain insights and to assess design and development impacts, attract investment and improve decision making. Quickly and accurately understanding how people interact with cities and physical environments offers significant advantages for urban planning and city management, noting that the resources and capacity to do so varies widely amongst cities.

Although there are considerable challenges and limitations in the application of Urban Digital Twins, the ability to share visual and interactive data and information to allow consideration of options/scenarios before implementation presents clear benefits and will aid decision making. Presenting visually rich imagery and data accurate models can also build understanding and enhance stakeholder engagement and participatory contributions. Grouping parameters into identifiable dimensions, ‘natural, infrastructure, institutional, economic and social’ (and associated sub-dimensions) assist city administrators to apply technologies to manage and coordinate actions and build cooperation across departments/organisations and implement plans to proactively respond to disruptions and disasters (Qiu, Lv, and Chan 2022).

6. Conclusions and areas for further research

Rapid global urbanisation, changing demographics and the impacts of climate change are exerting increasing pressure on cities worldwide. To address these challenges and build more resilient and sustainable cities the integration of big earth data, urban analytics, remote sensing, on-site monitoring, smart city technologies, and innovative digital platforms like, Urban Digital Twins, are crucial. To realise the benefits of new data mining, machine learning and AI platforms, simulation and visualisation tools in city planning, urban practitioners will need to acquire new skills and increase multidisciplinary collaboration. Combining efforts will expand our ability to analyse changes to the urban fabric and the built and natural environments in our cities. Improved data driven decision making will likewise positively impact the sustainable development of cities and benefit communities.

Digital infrastructure and data analytics can assist decision-makers and aid stakeholder engagement facilitating the preparation of urban resilience plans and targeted actions to respond to natural and human disruptions exacerbated by climate change. While the concept of urban resilience maybe interpreted differently across domains, there is consensus about the potential of improved urban systems to assist city dwellers to ‘bounce-back’ and mitigate climate change related disturbances. This is an area of significant interest to researchers and those in industry and government. ICT and other digital platforms are increasingly being used to mitigate the impacts of disasters before, during and after hazardous events. Applying these digital technologies before the onset of a disaster can significantly enhance urban resilience through pre-emptive planning and the development of preparedness and recovery plans.

Despite the multiplicity of current urban challenges, the implementation of big earth data, urban analytics and new digital platforms presents strong potential to enhance city resilience, drive SDG 11 and to improve the safety, health and wellbeing of city dwellers. Leadership is necessary to deliver integrated and responsive government regulation, standards and policy with cross-sector collaboration presenting opportunities to build innovative technologies, skill sets and training programs. While governments, industry and research institutions are enthusiastic about the potential of developing urban analytical tools and Digital Twins for urban environments, the concept is not widely understood, nor is there a shared view on practical applications, limitations or full capabilities. The utilisation of data and digital technologies and the development of policies and guidelines is likely to be the result of both ‘top-down’ and ‘bottom-up’ approaches. Applying innovative digital infrastructure platforms such as Digital Twins combined with increasingly sophisticated big earth data analytics offers significant potential to advance SDG 11 and assist urban populations impacted by the effects of climate change. Collaborative stakeholder engagement is crucial in fostering resilient, safe and inclusive cities, processes enhanced by digital technologies.

Further research is recommended to identify and document optimal urban planning policy and standards linked to the application of big earth data, Urban Digital Twin technologies and data analytics aimed at achieving SDG 11 on a global scale. Additionally, examining community engagement processes utilising these digital platforms (as case studies) would aid the implementation of climate resilient infrastructure and sustainable urban regeneration. This future research has potential to contribute valuable insights that can be shared and adapted by local governments collaborating with communities to effect positive change. By showcasing exemplary urban regeneration initiatives as business cases, it is possible to outline pertinent financial and non-financial considerations, and examples of indicative investments (capital costs and operational expenditure) and the commitments required to realise and forecast the social, economic and environmental benefits resulting from implementation. Moreover, developing a robust framework through research to guide the deployment of innovative digital infrastructures for climate resilience has potential to significantly enhance the health and wellbeing of urban populations.

The subject and application of advanced technology in urban planning to achieve SDG 11 and develop more resilient and sustainable cities will only become more important and, thus, an increasing focus for collaborative interdisciplinary research. Amongst the emerging research themes are, establishing the scope and parameters for Urban Digital Twin applications, advancing urban data analytics and development of an urban sustainability and resilience framework that map to the SDGs to progress human-centric urban development and regeneration projects.

Acknowledgements

This article acknowledges the contribution of presenters, panellists, delegates, participants and the organisers (in person and online) who contributed to the International Forum on ‘Digital Infrastructure for Climate Resilience Connecting Land, Energy and Infrastructure.’ This event was hosted by the University of Melbourne Centre for Spatial Data Infrastructures and Land Administration in collaboration with the World Bank at Melbourne Connect, Carlton, VIC, Australia, on 20 October 2023.

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Funding

The authors did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors for the preparation of this manuscript.