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Abstract
This article considers how different elite individuals and groups contributed to shaping the socio-political framework in León (North-Western Iberia) between the late ninth and the early eleventh centuries. Earlier interpretations were based on the idea that the kings were able to build an administrative framework to govern those lands and that this determined the way in which socio-political relationships were produced and reproduced in the area. However, a reassessment of the written sources shows a more complex reality. The authority of the kings was unevenly recognized throughout the different territories and their capacity to control the land effectively was limited to certain areas. At the same time, other elite groups were building their own political networks. The relationships they built both with the kings and among themselves were very varied in their nature. Nevertheless, political relations were negotiated and articulated within a shared political sphere. It is suggested that rather than as an administrative structure, the monarchy can be better conceived of as the framework defined by that complex and fluid set of socio-political relationships.
Acknowledgements
The research for this article was supported by the Ministry of Education, Spain, under a FPU doctoral fellowship at the University of Salamanca, and by the research project HAR2010-21950-C03-02, funded by the Ministry of Economy, Spain. It was completed during an IRC Postdoctoral Fellowship in UCD School of Archaeology and under the research project HAR2013-47889-C3-1-P, funded by the Ministry of Economy, Spain. I am grateful to Iñaki Martín Viso, Wendy Davies, and José María Mínguez for their comments on the earlier versions of this article. All errors remain my own.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
Notes
1Consider, to quote but two examples: Depreux, “L'intégration des élites”; Keynes, “Control of Kent.”
2As recorded in its two versions: Rotensis §14; Ad Sebastianum §14.
3 Sampiro §14. For a brief, though comprehensive account of the history of the kingdom of Asturias and its subsequent expansion, see Isla Frez, Alta Edad Media.
4Sánchez-Albornoz, Despoblación y repoblación; Mínguez, “Cristalización del poder politico.”
5For a recent historiographical review see Escalona, “Early Castilian Peasantry.”
6On the meseta prior to its integration in the Astur-Leonese monarchy, see Castellanos and Martín Viso, “Local Articulation of Central Power.”
7Carvajal Castro and Martín Viso, “Historias regionales de la repoblación.”
8See Martín Viso, Fragmentos del Leviatán; Carvajal Castro, “Superar la frontera.”
9Estepa, “Poder regio y los territorios.”
10Escalona, “Aproximación a un análisis comparativo,” 286–87.
11I am following Haldon, “Framing the Early Middle Ages,” 52. On the use of the term aristocracy I follow Morsel, L'aristocratie médiévale, 3–5; and specifically for the kingdom of Asturias-León: Moxó, “Nobleza castellano-leonesa.”
12For an overview of these groups, see Álvarez Palenzuela, “Nobleza del reino de León”; Carlé, “Gran propiedad y grandes propietarios”; Torres, Linajes nobiliarios. For two recent historiographical reviews, see Martínez Sopena, “Aristocracia hispánica”; Pérez, “Aristocracia altomedieval.”
13Collavini, “Spazi politici,” 319; Feller, “Introduction,” 7–8.
14Eslonza 1 (912.08.30); Sampiro §14.
15 Sampiro §15.
16Eslonza 1 (912.08.30).
17 Sampiro §3. For a critique see Sánchez-Albornoz, Orígenes, 661–71.
18For a defence of its authenticity see Quintana Prieto, “‘Tiranía’ de Bermudo.”
19Monsalvo, “Zamora y Salamanca,” 770–75.
20Reglero, “Restauración diocesana,” 91–92; Carvajal Castro, “Construcción de una sede regia.”
21Consider Portass, “Contours and Contexts”; Portass, “All Quiet on the Western Front?”
22Ast 5 (878.06.06).
23Martín, “Annales Castellani,” 208.
24Martín Viso, “Monarquía asturleonesa en el Bierzo,” 742; Isla Frez, Ejército, sociedad y política, 143–47. See also Escalona, “Aproximación a un análisis comparativo.”
25Montenegro Valentín, “En torno a los orígenes familiares de Diego Muñoz”; contra Pérez de Urbel, Historia del Condado de Castilla, 450–51; González, “Siglos de Reconquista,” 156.
26Carvajal Castro, “Superar la frontera,” 615–22.
27Ast 5 (878.06.06). For this interpretation of the document, see Isla Frez, Ejército, sociedad y política, 153–54.
28Si 384 (984.05.15).
29 Sampiro §1; on its military function, Sánchez-Albornoz, “Campañas del 882 y 883.”
30Li 24 (909.09.08), 51 (921.12.28), 86 (930.03.15), 87 (930.03.15).
31Botella Pombo, Serna, 45 and 81.
32Li 24 (909.09.08), 51 (921.12.28), 86 (930.03.15), 87 (930.03.15).
33Eslonza 24 (950.05.17).
34For Hanni: DEPA 133 (885); probably the same Hanni that is mentioned in Eslonza 5 (918.03.07) and Li 80 (929.04.01). For Vermudo Calvo: Li 51 (920.12.28).
35DEPA 133 (885); Li 51 (920.12.28).
36See Mínguez, “Pervivencia y transformación,” 17–19.
37Si 12, 13 (915.08.13),101 (945.08.28).
38Li 17 (904). Sánchez-Albornoz, Orígenes, 454, identifies Gonzalo with the son of Alfonso III, though he does not explain why. Some subsequent works and editions of Li17 (904) reproduce this identification without further justification.
39Marcos Díez, “Abadía de Santa María de Husillos,” 33–34.
40On the importance of castra and monasteries in the meseta before the tenth century, see Castellanos and Martín Viso, “Local Articulation of Central Power,” 33–35.
41Si 19 (920.05.25), 24 (921.03.10), 26 (921.09.08).
42On the meaning of presura, see Larrea, “Construir iglesias.”
43OD 1 (854.05.06); SantA 7 (874.02.14); Li 7 (875.07.10).
44Further consideration of these issues in regard to local elites in Castile is given in Escalona and Reyes, “Scale Change on the Border.”
45See n. 11. See also, from a more analytical perspective, Portela and Pallares, “Elementos para el análisis.” On the relationship between elites and ecclesiastical centres, see Pérez, “Control de lo sagrado”; Martínez Sopena, “Fundaciones monásticas y nobleza.”
46For some of the defining features of Leonese ideology in the tenth century from the perspective of the kings, see Isla Frez, Realezas hispánicas.
47See, for example: Baliñas, Defensores e traditores; Pérez, “Rebelles, infideles, traditores.”
48Si 9, 10 (909).
49Li 123 (937.12.19), 253 (952.05.18).
50 Sampiro §19. Munio Gómez does not appear as such. He is recorded as Abolmondar Albo. For the identification of this name with the figure of Munio Gómez, see Torres, Linajes nobiliarios, 236–39.
51Martínez Díez, Condado de Castilla, 196–97.
52Martín Viso, “Poder político y estructura social.”
53Escalona, “Aproximación a un análisis comparativo,” 286.
54 Sampiro, §23.
55Martínez Díez, Condado de Castilla, 639.
56See Fernández del Pozo, “Alfonso V.”
57Torres, “Munio Fernández”; Ruiz Asencio, “Rebeliones leonesas contra Vermudo II.”
58Carvajal Castro, “Superar la frontera,” 621.
59Lii 559 (993.09.30); Liii 707 (1012.09.19). For an account of his relationship with the kings see Torres, “Rebelde en la corte de Vermudo II.”
60Sii 404 (1018.11.19).
61Si 356 (998.03.01).
62Sii 444 (1036).
63Cardeña 17 (929.10.01), 18 (929.11.24), 42 (943.12.26).
64Cardeña 42 (943.12.26).
65Carvajal Castro, “Superar la frontera,” 608–15.
66There are different opinions on the origins of Vermudo Núñez. For a summary of these, see Torres, Linajes nobiliarios, 44–46. She suggests that Vermudo was the son of Nuño, Alfonso III's brother.
67Estepa Díez, “Poder y propiedad feudales,” 297–99.
68Pérez, “Estrategias de alianza.”
69Carvajal Castro, “Sociedad y territorio,” 114–16. See also Martínez Sopena, “Conde Rodrigo de León,” 53–62.
70On the Banu Mirel, see Martínez Sopena, Tierra de Campos, 347–52; on the Alfonso, see Martínez Sopena, “Parentesco y poder.”
71OD 196, 201; Liv 904; Eslonza 34; Sii 436; P1.
72Sisebuto Mauratélliz appears in royal charters between 913 and 928 (Eslonza 3; Lii 43, 51, 68, 79; Si 19, 22). Conancio Zaleme, in royal charters between 916 and 918 (Lii 38, 41; Eslonza 5). He might be the same Conancio that appears in charters issued by García I and Ordoño II between 912 and 921 (Eslonza 3; Lii 45, 51; Si 22). Sisebuto Pérez appears in charters issued by García I and Ordoño II between 912 and at least 921 (Lii 27, 51; Eslonza 3; Si 19, 24, 26). Aurelio and Fáfila Baroncéliz appear in royal charters between 921 and 941 (Eslonza 6; Lii 68, 101, 102; Ast 28, 49; Si 31, 76). Nepociano Díaz appears between 967 and 980 he witnessed charters issued by Ramiro III (Lii 442, 453, 461, 482; Si 284, 286, 293, 313), her aunt Elvira (Lii 411, 432; Si 255); as well as others given to San Miguel Arcángel de León (Lii 405); Santiago de León (Lii 412, 413); and the cathedral of León (Lii 451).
73On the royal cellars, see Liii 737 (1015). On royal judges: Davies, “Judges and Judging,” 199–200.
74Si 287 (977.03.12), Liii 708 (1012.11.12).
75OD 30 (989.03.10); Liii 871 (1030.05.24).
76OD 101 (1015.04.11).
77As cubicularius: Lii 192 (946.05.07), 201 (948.06.03). On the villas under his control: Lii 482 (981); Liii 749 (1017.04.17). He might be the same Fortunio García who donated a land in Lampreana to Sahagún in 962 (Si 196 (962.01.20)).
78Li 192 (946).
79Lii 410 (968); Liii 749 (1017).
80Lii 482 (981.01.14).
81J. Rodriguez's suggestion that he was of Navarrese descent, and thus ultimately alien to León, would further support this view, as it implies that originally they had no lands in León (Rodríguez, Ramiro II, 258). This, however, is a problematic contention since J. Rodríguez based his interpretation solely on the basis of the anthroponomical evidence.
82Liii 695 (1011.04.07), 741 (1016.06.16); OD 101 (1015.04.11).
83Liii 559 (993.09.30), 581 (998.09.05).
84E.g.: Mínguez, España de los siglos VI al XIII, 83–193.
85Wickham, Framing the Early Middle Ages, 58.
86See Davies, “Summary Justice.”
87E.g.: DEPA 133 (885); Si 84 (943.01.01); Lii 507 (985.11.08); OD 124 (1019.05.18).
88Liii 700 (1011), 708 (1012.11.12). Juan Gutínez appears as a dean of the cathedral of León in a series of charters between 995 and 1011 (Liii 571, 629, 658, 700).
89Liii 560 (994).
90Liii 754 (1018.05.17).
91Portela and Pallares, “Elementos para el análisis,” 26–32.
92Si 71 (938.04.19), 83 (942.10.22), 86 (943.02.17), 165 (959.10.30), 170 (959.12.28); Li 172 (943.06.11), 173 (943.06.11), 174 (943.06.17).
93Si 255 (970).
94 Contra Rodríguez, Ramiro II, 185–86, who sees in Vincemalo a royal delegate who was commissioned by the king to colonize these territories.
95Lii 270; Ast 86; Si 175; 176, 196, 197.
96Lii 331, 335, 353, 420.
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Álvaro Carvajal Castro
Álvaro Carvajal Castro ([email protected]) is an Irish Research Council Postdoctoral Fellow at the School of Archaeology, University College Dublin. He received his PhD in Medieval History from the University of Salamanca in 2013. His dissertation, which he is now preparing for publication, was entitled “The Formation of the Astur-Leonese Monarchy in the Duero Basin. A Study of the Processes of Territorial Integration (Ninth–Eleventh c.).” He has already published articles on early medieval León in Hispania, Anuario de Estudios Medievales, Studia Historia. Historia Medieval and e-Spania. His current research focuses on the emergence and development of polities in early medieval Ireland, Spain and England.