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Abstract
Few other major cities in the world are more closely associated with beaches and beach-going than Rio de Janeiro. Most notably, the beaches in Copacabana and Ipanema have long enjoyed worldwide fame. Yet, contrary to what might be expected and despite efforts to promote the city as a tourist destination, tourism did not play a major role in shaping the history of beach-going in twentieth-century Rio. On the one hand, the Brazilian city was simply too far from Europe and North America and a trip there too costly to attract significant numbers of European and North American tourists, who, if they were in search of a seaside holiday, had options much closer to home. Even in the 1990s, the number of foreigners who visited the city remained modest by international standards. On the other hand, a low average standard of living and a highly unequal distribution of income, among other factors, worked against the transformation of Rio's beaches into a destination for large-scale internal tourism. In the end, locals, far more so than tourists, made Rio into a city internationally known for its beaches. Rio, thus, differs from most other cities that have become famous for their beaches.
Acknowledgements
I should like to thank Celso Castro, David Ortiz, Sasha Pack, Lisa Munro, Flávio dos Santos Gomes, Kátia Bezerra, Jon Jucker, Rafael Fortes, Tyler Ralston, Dina Berger, Judith Barickman, Bianca Mandarino and Sidney Chalhoub for discussing earlier versions of this article, for help in locating sources, etc.
Note on contributor
B.J. Barickman, Associate Professor of History at the University of Arizona, is the author of A Bahian Counterpoint: Sugar, Tobacco, Cassava, and Slavery in the Recôncavo, 1780–1860 (Stanford University Press, 1998) and of several articles on the history of Brazil in English and Portuguese.
Notes
1 Santos, Feliz 1958 … (Rio de Janeiro: Record, 1997), 35. The following abbreviations are used in the notes: ACM, Annaes do Conselho Municipal; AEE, Anuário estatístico – Embratur; AGCRJ, Arquivo Geral da Cidade do Rio de Janeiro; ‘Bin’, ‘Binóculo’; B-M, Beira-Mar; BPDF, Boletim da Prefeitura do Distrito Federal; CM, Cidade Maravilhosa; CdaM, Correio da Manhã; OCrz, O Cruzeiro; Cr$, cruzeiros; ‘EN’, ‘Ecos e Noticias’ or ‘Écos e Noticias’; GN, Gazeta de Notícias; GB, AE, Guanabara (state), Secretaria de Planejamento e Coordenação Geral, Anuário estatístico; OImp, O Imparcial; IBGE, Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística; OJnl, O Jornal; JB, Jornal do Brasil; JC, Jornal do Commercio; JT, Jornal de Turismo; Manch, Manchete; NG, National Geographic; NYT, New York Times; ANte, A Noite; OPz, O Paiz; RS, Revista da Semana; SAH, South American Handbook; and UFRJ, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro.
2 The only published books specifically on the history of beaches, beach-going, etc. in Rio are two non-academic works: Claudia Gaspar, Orla carioca … (São Paulo: Metalivros, 2004); and Marcia Disitzer, Um mergulho no Rio: 100 anos de moda … na praia carioca (Rio de Janeiro: Casa da Palavra, 2012). More analytical and more extensively researched are Paulo Francisco Donadio Baptista, ‘Rumo à praia: Théo-Filho, Beira-Mar e a vida balneária no Rio de Janeiro nos anos 1920 e 1930’ (master's thesis, UFRJ, 2007); and Julia O'Donnell, A invenção de Copacabana: culturas urbanas … no Rio de Janeiro (1890–1940) (Rio de Janeiro: Zahar, 2013). Scattered throughout the historical literature on Rio are brief discussions of sea-bathing and beach-going. None of the available secondary sources analyse the relationship between tourism and the history of beach-going in Rio.
3 Melville, White Jacket … (1850; New York: Grove Press, n.d.), 205; SAH (1933), 155; Matschat, Seven Grass Huts … (New York: Farrar & Rinehart, 1939), 154.
4 I discuss the history of sea-bathing in Rio in ‘“Um uso carioca”: o banho de mar no Rio de Janeiro no século XIX e no início do século XX’ (paper presented at the Simpósio Internacional de História do Brasil, Rio de Janeiro, June 20–21, 2006), 26–58, 69–110. The main beaches in Rio's centre were the Boqueirão do Passeio and Santa Luzia. Both disappeared in the early twentieth century as the result of landfills. The beach in Flamengo mentioned in the main text, which was quite narrow, should not be confused with the broad beach that bears the same name today, which is an artificial beach, created as a result of a 1955–1965 landfill.
5 Maurício de A. Almeida, Evolução urbana …, 4th ed. (Rio de Janeiro: IPP, 2006), 80, 109; Neide L. Patarra, ‘Dinâmica populacional e urbanização no Brasil…’, in História geral da civilização brasileira, ed. Sérgio Buarque de Holanda and Boris Fausto, 11 vols. (São Paulo: Difusão Européia do Livro, 1963–1984), 11: 262; IBGE, ‘Tabela 3.1: População residente…’, http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/estatistica/populacao/censo2010/sinopse/sinopse_tab_rm_zip.shtm.
6 Jaime Larry Benchimol, Pereira Passos: um Haussman tropical … (Rio de Janeiro: Secretaria Municipal de Cultura, 1990).
7 Edmundo de Oliveira, Fossas e exgottos de Copacabana (Rio de Janeiro: Besnard Frères, 1906), 6; Abreu, Evolução, 80, 109.
8 AGCRJ, 55-4-7 and 55-4-10; C.J. Dunlop, Apontamentos …, 2 vols. (Rio de Janeiro: Laemmert, 1956), 2: 173–4, 187–9, 199–203, 233–6, 274–8, 301–2; Eneida [de Morais] and Paulo Berger, Copacabana (Rio de Janeiro: Departamento de História e Documentação do Distrito Federal, 1959), 3.
9 Ricardo Domingues, req. (1891), AGCRJ, 46-2-74; ‘Companhia da Cidade da Gavea …’ (1891), Arquivo Nacional, 4Y, no. 530; ‘Cidade da Gavea’, RS 17, no. 854, (1892): 6; ‘Cidade …’, GN, January 23, 1893, 1; ‘Cidade …’, RS 18, no. 858, (1893): 3–5.
10 Iracema, ‘Copacabana …’, RS, October 31, 1914, n.p.; Iracema, ‘A vida …’, RS, November 21, 1914, n.p.; ‘A mesa de chá …’, RS, December 12, 1914, n.p. Note that, in the original, Iracema used the English expression smart set and that, although she did not mention servants, it is implicit that the ‘ladies’ of Copacabana would not do the work of setting up their own tents.
11 ‘Bin’, GN, February 8, 1915, 4; ‘Bin’, GN, February 27, 1915, 4; ‘Bin’, GN, March 1, 1915, 4; Fernando Mendes de Almeida (president, Automóvel Club do Brasil), req. (February 27, 1915), AGCRJ, pasta 44, doc. 2.588; ‘Ideas …’, GN, March 7, 1915, 5; CdaM, February 10, 1915, 3; Iracema, ‘A vida …’, RS, February 27, 1915, n.p.; ‘Sorrisos …’, RS, March 6, 1915, n.p.; Iracema, ‘A vida …’, RS, March 20, 1915, n.p.; ‘Topicos …’, JC, November 24, 1914, 3; Iracema, ‘As nossas praias’, RS, January 6, 1917, n.p.; Iracema, ‘O banho …’, RS, December 15, 1917, n.p.
12 ‘Além do projecto …’, CdaM, March 13, 1915, 3; ACM, June 5–August 28, 1916, 7, 203–4, 208, 237; ACM, September 4–October 31, 1916, 458; Samuel Pelitzer, req. (24/3/1915), AGCRJ, pasta 44, doc. 2586.
13 See the sources cited in notes 10–12 above as well as, e.g. ACM, April 2–May 31, 1912, 102–3, 147, 156, 167, 104–6; ACM, June 1–August 28, 1912, 15, 66–7, 87, 92, 160–1; ‘O Rio …’, ANte, December 17, 1912, 1; ‘Quem paga …?’, ANte, December 19, 1912, 1; ‘O Rio …’, OImp, January 5, 1913, 1; ‘Echos’, OImp, January 17, 1914, 2; PDF [Bento Ribeiro], Mensagem … 2 de abril de 1913 (Rio de Janeiro: Officinas Graphicas do Paiz, 1913), 8;‘ Noticiario’, JB, April 28, 1914, 5; PDF [Rivadávia Correia], Mensagem … 5 de abril de 1915 (Rio de Janeiro: Typ. do Jornal do Commercio, 1915), 36. ‘Notas sociaes’, OImp, December 5, 1915, 5; ‘Semana elegante’, RS, October 13, 1917, n.p.; ‘EN’, ANte, January 19, 1918, 2; ‘O que são …’, RS, June 8, 1918, n.p.; and ‘EN’, ANte, December 30, 1919, 2.
14 PDF [Francisco Pereira Passos], Mensagem … 4 de abril de 1905 (Rio de Janeiro: Typographia da Gazeta de Noticias, 1905), 20–1.
15 Théo-Filho, Praia de Ipanema (Rio de Janeiro: Leite Ribeiro, 1927). On Raul Kennedy de Lemos, see Mário Peixoto et al., Vila Ipanema (Rio de Janeiro: Novo Quadro, 1994), 202.
16 BPDF, January–June, 1924, 243–5; ‘Hotel Balneario …’, GN, January 9, 1925, 4; ‘Femina’, JB, January 22, 1926, 9; ‘Chronica’, JB, January 24, 1928, 11; ‘Urca …’, JB, November 14, 1934, 11. With one exception, the last reference to the Lido ‘bathing park's’ cabanas that I located dates from 1930: PDF [Antonio Prado Jr.], Mensagem … 1° de junho de 1930 (Rio de Janeiro: Officinas Graphicas do Jornal do Brasil, 1930), 408. The one exception is a short excerpt from a novel: Celestino Silveira, ‘Os intoxicados’, B-M, August 15, 1931, 6. Presumably, the author wrote the novel before the cabanas were closed. I was unable to find a copy of the novel or even determine whether it was ever published. By contrast, repeated references to the restaurant appear in sources dated after 1930.
17 Ricardo Boechat, Copacabana Palace … (São Paulo: DBA Artes Gráficas, 1998). The hotel's casino closed in 1946 when authorities closed all casinos in Brazil.
18 SAH (1925), 111; SAH (1926), 117; SAH (1927), 129; SAH (1928), 145; SAH (1929), 143; SAH (1930), 143; SAH (1931), 147; SAH (1932), 133; SAH (1933), 133, 139; SAH (1934), 135; SAH (1935), 137; SAH (1936), 141; SAH (1937), 147; SAH (1938), 165; SAH (1939), 171; SAH (1940), 171; SAH (1941), 173; Angelo Orazi, Rio de Janeiro and Environs … (Rio de Janeiro: Guias do Brasil, 1939), 124–5. According to IBGE, Anuário estatístico do Distrito Federal … 1938 (Rio de Janeiro: IBGE, 1939), 362, the district of Copacabana (including Ipanema) had 12 hotels of various classes with a total of 720 rooms in 1938.
19 Iracema, ‘O banho. …’, RS, December 15, 1917, n.p.; ‘Bin’, GN, November 7, 1920, 4; ‘Bin’, GN, January 22, 1922, 7; ‘Bin’, GN, Febuary 12, 1922, 4; ‘Bin’, GN, January 11, 1923, 6; ‘Balnearios …’, OJnl, December 19, 1926, 2a seção, 6; ‘Nossas praias’, OCrz, December 15, 1928, 2; ‘O maior derivativo …’, OJnl, January 15, 1930, 3.
20 ‘EN: Visita …’, JB, November 8, 1928, 12; ‘O maior derivativo …’, OJnl, January 15, 1930, 3. See also, e.g. ‘Turistas …’, OJnl, January 29, 1928, 4; ‘Visita …’, CdaM, January 17, 1935, 5; and ‘Num cruzeiro …’, CdaM, January 25, 1934, 5. Scattered references in the sources suggest that, although not especially numerous, (wealthy) Argentines formed the largest single group of foreign tourists to visit Rio in the inter-war years. ‘O Rio o maior centro …’, ANte, January 6, 1922, 2; ‘As possibilidades …’, OCrz, October 3, 1931, 3; Strode Hudson, South by Thunderbird (New York: Random House, 1937), 323. Official data on tourism, available from 1967 onward, show that Argentines consistently made up a major share of all foreign visitors to Rio. See the sources cited in note 32 below. That is not surprising given Argentina's proximity to Brazil and its relatively high standard of living. And, by the 1960s and 1970s, Argentine tourists who travelled to Rio would have included members of that country's middle class.
21 IBGE, …, Anuário estatístico … 1938, 363; John Hassan, The Seaside …, (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2003), 263–4.
22 Luiz Gonzaga Godoi Trigo, Viagem na memória … (São Paulo: Ed. SENAC, 2000), 84–6; William Reid, Seeing South America … (Washington, DC.: The PanAmerican Union, 1931), 8. By 1939, passenger air service connected Europe with Rio (presumably with stopovers in Africa and Brazil). W. Robert Moore, ‘Rio Panorama’, NG 73, no. 3 (1939): 289. On NYRBA and PanAm, see Rosalie Schwartz, Flying Down to Rio … (College Station: Texas A& M Press, 2004).
23 IBGE, …, Anuário estatístico … 1938, 363; ‘Num cruzeiro …’, CdaM, January 25, 1934, 5; Rio de Janeiro in a Few Hours … ([Rio de Janeiro]: n. p., 1938).
24 See, e.g. Robert S. Kane, South America: A to Z (New York: Doubleday, 1962), 115; ‘A Glance …’, JT, February 20, 1967, 1; ‘Eu disse “Calma” …’, JT, February 20, 1968, 1; Eugene Fodor, ed., Fodor’s … South America, 1968 (New York: David McKay, 1968), 470, 472–4, 498, 504; ‘Rio's Beaches …’, NYT, January 24, 1970, 10; Priscilla Ann Goslin, Rau tchu bi a carioca …, trans. Carlos Araújo (Rio de Janeiro: Twocan, 1993), 46–7, 81–95; Christopher Pickard, Rio: The Guide (Rio de Janeiro: Zylon, 1995), F9–F13; Dominique Camus and Chantal Manoncourt, Brésil (Paris: Arthaud, 1996), 81–6; Edwin Taylor, ed., Insight Guides: Rio de Janeiro (London: APA, 1996), 41–7; Ipacom Travel, Insider’s Guide to Rio de Janeiro, http://ipanema.com/.
25 See, e.g. Reid, Seeing South America, 39–41; ‘Aunt Jessie's Chat …’, CM, September– October 1936, 44–5; ‘Praias …’, CM, September–October 1936, 38–9; Hugh Gibson, Rio (New York: Doubleday, Doran, 1937), 8–10; and ‘Copacabana …’, Guanabara–The Tourist’s Magazine, Summer 1939, 18–9.
26 Castro, ‘Narrativas e imagens do turismo no Rio de Janeiro’, in Antropologia urbana: cultura e sociedade no Brasil e em Portugal, ed. Gilberto Velho (Rio de Janeiro: Jorge Zahar, 1999), 80–7; Perrotta, “Desenhando um paraíso tropical: a construção do Rio de Janeiro como destino turístico” (doctoral diss. FGV–CPDOC, 2011).
27 Decreto 3816 (March 1932), AGCRJ, Fundo Henrique Dodsworth, caixa 172; ‘A 1a temporada …’, CdaM, January 10, 1932, 10. See also ‘As questões …’, OPz, November 11, 1922, 3, which describes Rio as ‘a winter city’. On early official efforts to promote tourism, see BPDF (July–December 1927), 128–9; BPDF (January–June 1928), 6; and PDF [Antonio Prado Jr.], Mensagem … 1° de junho de 1930 (Rio de Janeiro: Officinas Graphicas do Jornal do Brasil, 1930), 8–9, 453–6; BPDF (April–June 1934), 120–1; BPDF (April–June 1936), 120–1. The 1932 plans for a ‘tourist season’ were in line with a 1915 proposal for an exchange of (wealthy) South American tourists. Under the proposal, Rio would be the winter destination, and Montevideo ‘the summer capital’ because it had ‘marvelous beaches’ and beachfront hotels comparable to those at European resorts: ‘Montevideo …’, RS, March 13, 1915, n.p.; ‘Os laços …, OPz, February 8, 1915, 1–2. Note that air-conditioning remained rare in Rio even in the late 1940s.
28 Brazilian Representation, New York World's Fair 1939, Travel in Brazil … (Rio de Janeiro: n.p., [1939]), 17–33, 87, 116, 127, 153–4, 163. The book does, it is true, mention in passing Rio's ‘superb beaches’ (5) in its preface and does include a photograph of the Copacabana Palace Hotel (33). But, from the photo, no one unfamiliar with Rio would know that it was a beachfront hotel; it shows no sand or water.
29 Simpich, ‘Gigantic Brazil …’, NG, December, 1930, 732–8; Moore, ‘Rio Panorama’, plates VII and XIX and 290, 299.
30 Flying Down to Rio, directed by Thornton Freeland (Hollywood: RKO, 1933); Notorious, directed by Alfred Hitchcock (Hollywood: RKO, 1946). Note that most of the scenes showing Rio's beaches in Flying Down … are shot from the air. There is more than one possible explanation for why the beach as shown in Notorious is entirely empty. It may have been shot during hours in which bathing was prohibited or on a cold, but sunny, day.
31 Trigo, Viagem, 89; PanAmerican Airways, Latin American Services (1947), http://www.timetableimages.com/ttimages/pa/pa47/pa47-03.jpg; AEE – 1972, 15.
32 GB, AE, 1971, 164–5 (which cites Embratur data); AEE – 1972, 17–18; AEE – 1973, 53–4; AEE – 1974, 23–6; AEE – 1975, 23–6; AEE – 1976, 23–6; AEE – 1977, 26–31; AEE – 1978, 26–31; AEE – 1979, 26–31; AEE – 1980, 26–31; AEE – 1981, 26–33; AEE – 1982, 26–33; AEE – 1983, 146–47; AEE – 1990/1991, 100–101; AEE – 1994/1995, 121; AEE – 1996, 117; AEE – 1997, 121; AEE – 1998, 17; Hassan, The Seaside, 264; Pack, Tourism, 86. Embratur's data need to be regarded with caution. On the one hand, they may in some years exaggerate the number of foreign tourists visiting Rio because they include all foreigners arriving in the city, by air or sea, whether their final destination was Rio or some other Brazilian city and whether they were travelling for leisure or not. Indeed, in 1994, more than one-fifth (22%) of all ‘tourists’ arriving in Brazil were, according to Embratur, business travellers or conventioneers. AEE – 1996, 147. On the other hand, at least in the 1990s, they may underestimate the number of foreign tourists whose main destination in Brazil was Rio. In 1996, for example, when, according to Embratur, 511,586 foreign ‘tourists’ travelling by air arrived in Rio, the corresponding figure for the city of São Paulo was 979,746. AEE – 1998, 17. It is hard to believe that São Paulo could attract nearly 92 percent more foreign ‘tourists’ than Rio and fully 52% of all foreigners visiting Brazil in that year. The explanation surely lies in the decisions at the time of major airlines to reduce the number of their direct international flights to Rio. Foreigners travelling to Brazil for leisure and other purposes, in many cases, had to make a stopover in São Paulo, where they passed through immigration, before going on to Rio or other cities. See ‘Rio Journal …’, NYT, June 4, 2000, A4. Indeed, according to Embratur surveys, Rio was consistently the city in Brazil most visited by foreigners in the years 1994–1997. AEE – 1996, 147; AEE – 1997, 155; AEE – 1998, 161, 165. Yet, even if, for instance, we were to double Embratur's figure for the number of ‘tourists` visiting Rio in 1997 (511, 586), the result – 1,023,172 – would still fall well short of the roughly two million visitors that the English resort of Bournemouth received in 1939. Hassan, The Seaside, 264.
33 Eugene Fodor, ed., Fodor’s South America, 1970 (New York: David McKay, 1970), 64; US Census Bureau, ‘Table F-4. Regions – Families (All Races) by Median and Mean Income: 1953 to 2010’, http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/income/data/historical/families/; Lawrence H. Officer and Samuel H. Williamson, ‘Measuring Worth’, http://www.measuringworth.com/index.php (the source I use for exchange rates in all currency conversions in this essay).
34 AEE – 1998, 161; US Census Bureau, ‘Table H-6. Regions – All Races by Median and Mean Income: 1975 to 2010’, http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/income/data/historical/household/. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, an increase in violent crime and Brazil's resulting international reputation as a violent country may have discouraged a greater influx of foreign tourists in those years. Ib Teixeira, ‘O colapso do turismo e a violência no Brasil’, Conjuntura Econômica 49 (1995): 63–4.
35 Rosalie Schwartz, Pleasure Island … (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1997); Hugh Thomas, The Cuban Revolution (New York: Harper & Row, 1977), 407; Dina Berger, The Development of Mexico’s Tourist Industry … (New York: Macmillan Palgrave, 2006); Stephen R. Niblo and Diane M. Niblo, ‘Acapulco in Dreams and Reality’, Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos 24, no. 1 (2008): 31–51; David Timothy Duval, ed., Tourism in the Caribbean … (London: Routledge, 2004).
36 Sasha D. Pack, Tourism and Dictatorship: Europe’s Invasion of Franco’s Spain (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), esp. 91, 97–103, 165; Sasha D. Pack, ‘Turismo en la Europa de posguerra: de la diplomacia esterliniana al consumismo de masas’, TST, 24 (2013): 138–66. Eugene Fodor, ed., Fodor’s Europe, 1970 (New York: David McKay, 1970), 511–25 and 1003–25.
37 ‘A Cidade de Copacabana …’, OCrz, January 15, 1949, 13, 16. The statement about nationally circulating magazines is based on an examination of various periodicals, including Careta, the Revista da Semana, O Cruzeiro and Manchete. By the late 1960s and the 1970s, Ipanema, as a result of similar articles, probably held, in a different way, a comparable fascination for many cariocas and Brazilians outside of Rio. Embratur, in its statistical yearbooks (cited in note 33 above), provides information on the number of passengers arriving at Rio's inter-municipal and interstate bus terminal as a proxy for the number of Brazilian tourists visiting the city. But that proxy is very rough and potentially quite misleading. On the one hand, it excludes Brazilian tourists who travelled to the city by air, car or train. On the other hand, and more important, it includes passengers who travelled to Rio by bus for reasons having nothing to do with tourism, such as migrants to the city, as well as cariocas who were returning home after any sort of trip.
38 ‘Guarujá …’, Manch, February 27, 1971, 60; Suzana Barreto Ribeiro, Italianos do Brás … (São Paulo: Brasiliense, 1984), 81–5; Patarra, ‘Dinâmica’, 262. Note that, in 1960, when Brasília became Brazil's national capital, the city of Rio de Janeiro became the state of Guanabara, which consisted of a single city: Rio, the state's capital. In 1975, when Guanabara was ‘fused’ with the old state of Rio de Janeiro, which had its capital in Niterói (across the bay), Rio, the city, became the capital of the new ‘fused’ state of Rio de Janeiro.
39 Pastoriza, ‘Turismo social …’ in Las puertas al mar …, ed. Elisa Pastoriza (Buenos Aires: Biblos, 2002), 89–113.
40 Maria Helena Moreira Alves, Estado e oposição no Brasil …, 2d ed. (Petrópolis: Vozes, 1984), 248 (wages in the auto industry).
41 Transporte …’, JT, April 20, 1967, 5; GB, AE, 1971, 250; Pack, Tourism, 97.
42 ‘Rio …’, NYT, November 11, 1956, X21; ‘O Rio …’, JB, January 14, 1968, 26. The total of 27 hotels in 2010 is based on a direct count made by walking the entire length of the beachside Avenidas Atlântica, Francisco Bhering, Vieira Souto and Delfim Moreira in June 2010. The total refers only to hotels directly overlooking the beach; i.e. it excludes hotels on back and side streets in Copacabana (including Leme), Ipanema and Leblon. By no means were all of the 27 large. E.g. the Arena, the California, the Debret, the Olinda, the Fasano and the Lancaster had, respectively, only 135, 113, 108, 101, 89 and 70 guest rooms (including suites).
43 Lessa, O Rio de todos os Brasis … (Rio de Janeiro: Record, 2001), 245–6; ‘Peles …’, Diário da Noite, December 12, 1949, 2d ed., 12.
44 Abreu, Evolução, 27, 109.
45 SEBRAE, A economia da praia ([Rio de Janeiro: SEBRAE, 2006]), 33. The published results of the survey distinguish only between residents of the city of Rio and non-residents.
46 On Heloísa and the song, see Ruy Castro, Ela é carioca … (São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 1999), 158–60. Note that, although they retain the general spirit of the song, the English lyrics differ significantly from the original Portuguese. Thus, the English version translates the original ‘num doce balanço / caminho do mar’ as ‘When she passes/each one she passes goes ahh’. Note also that the history of the bossa nova is intimately linked to Copacabana and Ipanema.