“Blue-ice”: framing climate change and reframing climate change adaptation from the indigenous peoples' perspective in the northern boreal forest of Ontario, Canada

Abstract

The northern boreal forest in Ontario, Canada, in the sub-Arctic above the 51st parallel, is the territorial homeland of the Cree, Ojibwe, and Ojicree Nations. These Nations are represented by the political organization Nishnawbe Aski Nation (NAN). January 6–March 31, 2011 the researchers and NAN collaborated in a study to record observations of changes in the forest environment attributed to climate change and share and exchange information and perspectives about climate change. Data were collected from 10 First Nation communities across a geographic area of ∼110,800 km² (43,000 mi²). We explore climate change impacts through the lens of “blue-ice”, a term embedded in their languages across the fieldwork area and reframe adaptation in the First Nations' perspective and worldview. Changes in blue-ice on the landscape are affecting transportation in traditional activities such as hunting and fishing, as well as the delivery of essential community supplies. The word “adaptation” linked to climate change does not exist in their languages and the term is associated with European colonization. We propose the term “continuity” to reflect the First Nation worldview. Our recommendation is giving First Nations' perspectives and knowledge of their territorial landscape a foundational role in the development of climate change policy for Ontario's northern boreal forest.

Keywords:

• adaptation
• climate change
• cultural continuity
• energy security
• First Nations
• food security
• participatory action research
• sub-Arctic
• traditional activities
• worldviews

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the National Science and Engineering Research Council (NSERC) Northern Internship Research Program awarded to Denise M. Golden, Dr. Steve Colombo, Research Scientist, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, Dr. R. Harvey Lemelin, Lakehead University Research Chair in Parks and Protected Areas and Nishnawbe Aski Nation (NAN) and the following communities for their contributions in the research: Muskrat Dam First Nation, Weagamow First Nation, Sandy Lake First Nation, Pikangikum First Nation, Nibinamik First Nation, Neskantaga First Nation, Attawapiskat First Nation, Fort Albany First Nation, Kingfisher Lake First Nation and Wunnumin Lake First Nation. We also extend our appreciation to two anonymous reviewers for their comments and supportive input on previous versions of the manuscript, and to Han van Dijk.

Notes

1. We use three different terms to cover indigenous peoples: “indigenous”, as spelled out in the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, 2007 (and adopted by Canada in 2010), “Aboriginal”, which is defined in Canada's Constitution Act, 1982 to include “Indians, Métis, and Inuit”; and “First Nations”, which has no legal definition but has become the accepted term for “Indian Bands” under the Indian Act (INAC, 2002); the communities that were part of the study are all “First Nations” and consider themselves to be Ojibwe, Cree, and Ojicree Nations. We therefore use the term First Nations and indigenous interchangeably.

2. NAN Launches Anti-Bill 191 Campaign News Release, Tuesday, August 31, 2010, Thunder Bay, ON.

3. Climate change mitigation is the reduction, prevention, and removal of greenhouse gases from the atmosphere, whereas adaptation is planning and preparing for climate change impacts to lessen the impact or capitalize on the opportunities.

4. Respectfully acknowledged, unavoidable community circumstances took precedence over the research; many times the winter road opened creating an exodus of community members (both and/or interviewees and translators) to obtain much needed supplies, or sadly a death occurred and all community activities halted, including interviews, except those to mourn.

5. Sub-Arctic geography retrieved from Natural Resources Canada, The Atlas of Canada Climatic Regions http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/maps/archives/3rdedition/environment/climate/030.

6. Land elevations were taken from topographical maps The Atlas of Canada, Natural Resources Canada; Retrieved from http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/maps/topo/map.

7. The Köppen Climate Classification information as developed by German geographer Wladimir Köppen (1846–1940) continues to be the authoritative map of the world climates in use today; Retrieved from http://www.elmhurst.edu/~richs/EC/101/KoppenClimateClassification.pdf.

8. The UN Secretariat of the Permanent Forum on Indigenous Peoples (2009) reports 370 million indigenous peoples live within 90 countries around the world.

9. Eight of the 10 communities are located inland and situated next to lakes or rivers; 2 communities are located on the James Bay Coast at the mouth of major rivers – the Albany and Attawapiskat.

10. Comments and recollections from community members included ice strong enough to walk across within days after temperatures became very cold – the blue-ice trusted for its strength, lasting for many months.

11. Notes taken during a discussion Muskrat Dam, ON, January 19, 2011.

12. Canadian retail gasoline prices in 2011 averaged $1.24/litre; Fuel Focus, 2011 Annual Review, Natural Resources Canada. Retrieved from http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/energy/fuel-prices/gasoline-reports/4733.

13. The Globe and Mail Canadian Press. Sunday, December 02, 2012. Neighbouring reserve to Attawapiskat narrowly avoids fuel, housing crisis. Retrieved from http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/neighbouring-reserve-to-attawapiskat-narrowly-avoids-fuel-housing-crisis/article5899087/.

14. One culturally appropriate response would be how First Nations address changes in hunting areas because of wildlife habitat changes.

15. The Gradual Civilization Act sought to assimilate Aboriginal people (Indians) into Canadian settler society by encouraging “enfranchisement”, a legal process for terminating a person's Indian status; Retrieved from http://indigenousfoundations.arts.ubc.ca/?id=1053.

16. FPIC is the principle that indigenous peoples and local communities have a right to give or withhold their free, prior, and informed consent to developments or potential effects by an external initiative or influence outside the community; Retrieved from http://www.recoftc.org/site/resources/FPIC-in-REDD-/.