ABSTRACT
Australia has attempted to position itself as a world leader in Marine Protected Area (MPA) practice through leveraging its significant national MPA network as well as its heavy involvement in the creation of high seas MPAs in the Antarctic. However, the quality of Australia’s domestic and international MPA practice have separately been subject to similar and convincing critiques. Despite this, little research exists which highlights how these two levels of law-making may interact regarding MPAs. Hence, the question to be addressed is: ‘How does Australia’s domestic and international MPA practice interact?’ Through drawing upon middle power theory to characterise this interaction, three distinct eras of practice can be observed: 1990–2000, 2001–2012 and 2013–present. By understanding the common interactions between the national and international levels of law making across these eras, it is possible to better understand the motivations behind Australia’s international MPA practice, as well as to anticipate future actions.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes
3 Delegations of Australia, France and the European Union (Citation2012).
8 UNGA Res.72/249 (24 December 2017) Seventy-second session, agenda item 77, at (2).
9 See e.g. Convention on Biological Diversity (Citation2022, Target 3); Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment (Citation2021a).
49 Australian Institute of Marine Science (Citation2018, 6).
51 Climate Transparency, Australia Country Profile (Citation2020).
54 Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Act 1975 (Cth).
58 Convention on Biological Diversity, adopted 5 June 1992, 1760 UNTS (entered into force 29 December 1993); United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, adopted 10 December 1982, 1833 UNTS 397 (entered into force 1 November 1994).
59 Convention on Biological Diversity, adopted 5 June 1992, 1760 UNTS (entered into force 29 December 1993), article 8.
60 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, adopted 10 December 1982, 1833 UNTS 397 (entered into force 1 November 1994), article 61.
66 Environmental Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (Cth) Part 15 Division 4.
67 Environmental Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Regulations 2000 (Cth) Reg 10.03H and Schedule 8; Cochrane (Citation2016, 51 and 56).
71 Calculated from data reported at: Australian Government: Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment (Citation2021).
74 World Summit on Sustainable Development (Citation2002, 19).
79 Conference of the Parties of the Convention on Biological Diversity (Citation2004, 3 and 7).
80 Conference of the Parties of the Convention on Biological Diversity (Citation2004, 10).
81 Calculated from data reported by at Australian Government: Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment (Citation2021).
82 Environmental Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (Cth) Part 15 Division 4, at section 176.
84 Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (Citation2009); British Antarctic Survey (Citation2009).
88 Goldsworthy, Zuur, and Llewellyn (Citation2016, 105–106).
90 Calculated from data reported by at Australian Government: Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment (Citation2021).
98 The International Institute for Sustainable Development (Citation2012, 1).
103 Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (Citation2012, 28–29).
114 Calculated from data reported at: Australian Government: Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment (Citation2021).
121 See e.g. Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (Citation2020, 41–43).
137 High Ambition Coalition for Nature and People (Citation2021).
143 Prime Minister, Minister for the Environment, Minister for Energy and Emissions Reduction (Citation2021)
144 Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment (Citation2021e).
147 UNGA Res.75/L.96 (9 June 2021) Seventy-fifth session, agenda item 76(a).
149 Conference of the Parties of the Convention on Biological Diversity (Citation2004); Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (Citation2011); Delegations of Australia, France and the European Union (Citation2012).
150 Calculated from data reported at: Australian Government: Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment (Citation2021).
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Notes on contributors
Ethan Beringen
Ethan Beringen is a PhD student and member of the Centre for Environmental Law at Macquarie University in Sydney, Australia. His research interests include marine biodiversity protection, the negotiations for a new treaty instrument for conserving marine biodiversity beyond national jurisdiction, Australia's ocean governance and middle power theory.
Nengye Liu
Nengye Liu is an Associate Professor at Singapore Management University specialising in the Law of the Sea, International Environmental Law, International Polar Law, Chinese Environmental Law and EU External Relations Law.
Michelle Lim
Michelle Lim is an Associate Professor at Singapore Management University. Her research focuses on Biodiversity Law, Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES), Futures studies and the law, Fiction as legal method and Transdisciplinary methodology.
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4647-8953
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