Public Engagement in Micro-hydro Technology in Central Java: A Call to Decentralize the Energy System

Abstract

This article explores how the public might actively participate in renewable energy projects by studying the role of local and credentialed experts in the development of micro-hydro technology for self-supply (off-grid electrification) or commercialization (on-grid electrification) in Central Java, Indonesia. All of the data were gathered qualitatively, including semi-structured interviews with local experts and energy experts, as well as interviews with local entrepreneurs, private companies, government agencies, end users, and civil society groups. Other methods included document analysis, observations, and site visits. The research found that credentialed and local experts have distinct sets of expertise and roles that complement one another. This challenges the “deficit” model of public understanding of science, which often claims that energy projects fail due to a lack of policy-relevant knowledge. The expertise of locals, their financial situation, and their geographic location are all considered to be linked with the design of micro-hydro technology, which is most typically run-of-river. While micro-hydro design is often related to “decentralization,” standardized expertise has emerged as a critical impediment to alternative energy commercialization. This article concludes that public participation, supported by decentralized policies, is required to drive future growth and maintain the long-term viability of micro-hydro technology.

Keywords:

• Public engagement
• decentralization
• Indonesia
• micro-hydro technology
• alternative energy

1 Introduction

One early March morning in 2021, three people led us to a forest where a micro-hydro power plant had been constructed. We walked two miles over a plantation to reach our destination. Two of them were in charge of inspecting river flows, looking for blockages, and making sure that the forest was intact and undamaged. The third used a voltage meter to test the components in the power house. Despite having no official training in engineering or similar areas, they appear to be professionals, and the micro-hydro they had constructed seemed to be in fine working order. This is just one example of the efforts of local farmers to provide alternative energy technology in a remote area of Central Java, Indonesia.

Indonesia had reached an electrification rate of 99.20% as of the end of 2020 (Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources of Indonesia 2021a). Despite progress achieved by the Indonesian government over the last decade through the National Electricity Company (PLN), a state-owned company responsible for the country’s electricity grid, the remaining locations without access to electricity are primarily found in remote areas. As the PLN electricity grid continues to have difficulty reaching remote areas, expanding electrification in remote regions does not seem to be a top priority.

Meanwhile, oil, gas, and coal are Indonesia’s primary energy resources. Fossil fuel power plants have dominated Indonesia’s electricity production for the past 10 years, with coal, natural gas, and oil accounting for more than 70% of total production (Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources of Indonesia 2021b). While Indonesia’s high production of fossil fuels is insufficient to supply remote areas, the country has set a target of 23% renewable energy utilization by 2025, and a goal of net zero emissions by 2050. Renewable energy only accounted for 11.5% of total energy production in Indonesia in 2020, with hydropower, including micro-hydro, making the highest contribution (8%) (Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources of Indonesia 2020b). In other words, hydropower remains the most popular renewable energy technology in Indonesia, as it is considered a cost-effective and reliable source of energy (Erinofiardi et al. 2017).

According to Oliver Paish (2002), hydropower comes in a variety of sizes. There is no internationally acknowledged definition of “small” hydropower at the moment. “Mini-hydro” normally refers to schemes with a capacity of less than 2 megawatts (MW), “micro-hydro” to those with a capacity of less than 500 kilowatts (kW), and “pico-hydro” to those with a capacity of less than 10 kW. Regardless of the capacity range, the 2019 Indonesia Energy Outlook claimed that hydropower plants in Indonesia have the potential to reach a capacity of up to 94.3 gigawatts (GW). However, only about 5% of this potential had been realized in 2020, with 5638 MW of installed capacity for large hydroelectric power plants, which provide electricity to industries, and 501 MW of installed capacity for mini- and micro-hydro, which typically provide electricity to households and small businesses (Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources of Indonesia 2020).

Micro-hydro has the potential to significantly reduce reliance on fossil fuels, particularly kerosene for lighting, while also providing significant social and economic benefits to local communities (Gippner et al. 2013). The positive outlook for micro-hydro as a sustainable form of energy relates to the abundance of rivers and waterfalls in many remote areas of Indonesia. The natural topography of Indonesia, with its hilly and mountainous landscape, benefits the development of hydropower, particularly mini and micro-hydro, because the technology is typically run-of-river, with no large dam or reservoir (Paish 2002).

Additionally, water utilization is not a novelty for grassroots communities, particularly those in remote places who have long done it. Many locals who work as farmers are familiar with water and its many applications. The large number of rivers and waterfalls along with mountains and hills across the country means that farmers are well-versed in exploiting water resources to support their crops despite the difficult terrain. These farmers are familiar with the use of terraces to protect their crops from landslides and provide irrigation by allowing water to flow from higher planes to lower planes. This aligns with the idea of using the flow of water from higher places applied in the production of hydro energy, which utilizes the energy released by falling water to move turbines that generate electricity (Gürbüz 2006). Such farmers have frequently pioneered the development of micro-hydro, whether for off-grid use or for commercialization via the PLN power grid. These people, who have no formal education in engineering or related areas, are transformed into local experts who are capable of addressing the widespread energy challenges in their neighborhood. In other words, expertise relating to local contexts could be considered part of what it means to be a “local expert.”

Additionally, numerous studies have demonstrated the critical importance of engaging “lay experts” in gaining a deeper grasp of science, medicine, and technology development (Betsos et al. 2022; Campbell 2019; Epstein 1996; Hess 2007; Irwin and Wynne 1996; Wynne 1989, 1992). In environment and energy issues, including nuclear energy (Bhadra 2013), wind energy (Phadke 2013), solar energy (Mulvaney 2013), and natural gas fracking (Kinchy 2017), the literature on science and technology studies (STS) has made a substantial contribution to the discussion on public engagement in energy technologies. Nevertheless, despite how crucial they are, the contribution of local experts to the development of micro-hydro technology is rarely documented. Expertise generated by local experts is based on their lives and histories and includes in-depth accounts of daily jobs.

Meanwhile, the involvement of credentialed experts who have formal degrees from accredited institutions, as well as official job titles and other kinds of recognition bestowed by formal institutions (Williams and Moore 2019), has always been a component of the key focus in ensuring policy relevance. The lack of coverage of the significant role of local experts raises the question of whether national policymaking regarding alternative renewable energy, particularly on the development of micro-hydro, had been neglecting to consider local interests.

When analyzing public engagement in energy technology, it is necessary to investigate the social mechanisms that shape it. This is because energy systems encompass larger social, economic, and cultural assemblages that are constructed around energy production and consumption as well as energy technology (Miller et al. 2013; Sovacool and Brossmann 2013). In this research note, we investigate public engagement in both off-grid and on-grid micro-hydro technologies as an alternative renewable energy source, with a focus on the role of local experts. We highlight the significance of public engagement in the creation of alternative energy technology trajectories. Our case can be used to challenge the “knowledge deficit” model of public understanding of science, which many experts believe to be the cause of the public’s opposition to new technologies (Bauer et al. 2007). This model frequently asserts that the failure of energy projects is caused by a lack of knowledge of policy relevance. In addition, readers interested in energy politics will get a better understanding of multi-level governance procedures for renewables in multi-cultural, decentralized countries such as Indonesia. While the governmental structure of Indonesia is decentralized, the country’s electrical system is largely centralized (Marquardt 2014). The majority of the nation’s electricity is distributed by the state-owned business PLN. Aside from PLN, a number of other ministries play various roles in the sociotechnical system of renewable energy. We shall illustrate that “centralized regulation,” as expressed in standardization of expertise through certificates, has arisen as a substantial impediment to the democratization of the energy system.

2 Methods

In our qualitative research, we began gathering information about the location of micro-hydro from multiple sources, including the internet and the Department of Energy and Mineral Resources of Central Java. After amassing complete details, we conducted pre-site visits to ensure that the information was accurate. Local residents who were aware of the micro-hydro power plants’ locations also provided us with information. We are thankful for the assistance of local research assistants Meifita Handayani and Muhadz Ali in conducting interviews and transcribing interviews into verbatim transcripts.

Figure 1 shows that we identified five areas that are representative of Central Java. Two of these, Desa Kebumen (Semarang) and Desa Baseh (Banyumas), have on-grid micro-hydro installations. The remaining three, Desa Karangtengah (Banyumas), Desa Ngesrepbalong (Kendal), and Desa Igirklanceng (Brebes), have off-grid micro-hydro constructions. The five micro-hydro locations were chosen after considering accessibility and public health concerns. In early 2021, most of Indonesia was experiencing the rainy season and a “local lockdown” as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic. In light of the fact that micro-hydro is primarily found in mountainous and forested areas that are difficult to reach by car, we classified these five locations as more accessible. Our study is concentrated in these areas since they also represent a significant number of local experts with a diverse range of perspectives.

Figure 1 Map of off-grid and on-grid micro-hydro plants. Copyright © Esri. All rights reserved. For more information about Esri® software, please visit www.esri.com.

The informants were chosen using a purposive sample technique based on their involvement in the development of micro-hydro. We carried out a hybrid (online and in-person) form of semi-structured interviews with local and energy experts, as well as interviews with local entrepreneurs, private companies, government agencies, end users, and civil society groups, between March and May 2021. An international non-governmental organisation (NGO) that supported micro-hydro development in Kebumen did not respond to our request for an interview; however, we were able to obtain pertinent documentation regarding this NGO’s role there. In August 2021, fieldwork was completed, and relevant documentation was obtained and examined. This documentation consists of micro-hydro guidelines, official planning documents, media coverage, copies of contract documents, socio-economic and environmental impact assessments, and correspondence letters.

3 Indonesia’s Hydroelectric Technology: From Colonial Mining Interest to Democratization of the Energy System

The Dutch colonial government introduced numerous technologies in Indonesia, including transportation, urban planning, fashion, electricity, and radio (Mrázek 2002). In 1906, electricity generated by hydroelectric power plants began when the “Waterkrachtwerk aan de Tjikapoendoengnabij Dago Pakar” in West Java was inaugurated, with a production capacity of 800 kW. In 1913, that power station was taken over by BEM (Bandoengsche Electriciteits Maatschappij), a private firm that managed electricity. In Pesisir Selatan, West Sumatra, Salido, a 330 kW micro-hydro power plant introduced in the early twentieth century to offer electricity to the mining sector, is considered one of the country’s oldest micro-hydro power plants. Dutch electricity and power generation companies in Indonesia became national assets after the country gained independence in 1945. These companies became PLN after being nationalized in 1959.

Following the Sukarno era, former President Suharto initiated PLN institutional reforms. As the Suharto authoritarian regime aimed for further development and electrification, steps were taken to improve management of the energy sector (Mohsin 2014). Since 1972, PLN has operated as a state-owned enterprise with authorization to produce, transmit, and distribute electricity; to plan and build electrical infrastructure; to develop electrical power; and to provide services in the electricity sector (Republic of Indonesia 1972). Today, PLN continues to conduct business in the same manner as it started in 1972. And, since 1992, PLN has allowed private-sector players to supply electricity to the state-owned enterprise. Recently, actors in Central Java who have constructed on-grid micro-hydro have seized this chance to sell electricity to PLN.

In Central Java, the massive development of micro-hydro started around 2007 when the central government announced a national policy addressing the conversion of kerosene to gas for households, while the Indonesian National Nuclear Energy Agency (BATAN) pushed to revive the construction of a nuclear power plant in Muria, Central Java, in 2006. As the global oil crisis began, the government recognized the urgency of energy transition, and several attempts were launched to mitigate the impact of the crisis. With oil prices continuing to spike, fuel subsidies became a heavy burden for the government, in particular the subsidy for kerosene, which was a staple in Indonesian households (Andadari and Mulder 2014). Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) was chosen as the kerosene replacement following findings that it not only would reduce fuel subsidies but also would be much safer and beneficial in the long run (Budya and Yasir 2011). The kerosene conversion program was announced in 2006 and became widely implemented in 2008, with the government focusing on distributing LPG all over the country while also conducting massive kerosene withdrawal. The majority of households accepted the policy and started using LPG for cooking. Kerosene was, however, still needed to generate lighting using lamps, particularly in remote areas where electricity was unavailable.

At the same time, in early 2006, BATAN once again started promoting the construction of a nuclear power plant in Muria, Central Java, as an energy source. Unlike the kerosene conversion, this plan was opposed by the vast majority of the local population. Using their popular knowledge of nuclear power technology, the people challenged BATAN’s expertise and organized anti-nuclear movements on a national and local scale, putting pressure on the government (Amir 2009; Fauzan and Schiller 2011; Pradheksa 2017). Our Qaryah Thayyibah Farmers Union (SPPQT) informant, who joined the anti-nuclear movement, made clear that one of his group’s goals when developing micro-hydro was to oppose the Muria nuclear power plant as part of its push for democratizing energy systems in a decentralized manner. The lack of electricity, kerosene scarcity, and the threat of nuclear risks pushed the local people to look for alternative energy sources instead. Locals in remote areas not only looked to their environment and technology to solve their energy problems, but also chose to construct micro-hydro power plants in order to take ownership of the production of renewable energy. Their attempts to combine participation in decision-making with ownership of renewable energy technology exemplify energy democracy (Szulecki 2018).

4 Off-Grid and On-Grid Micro-hydro: A Call to Decentralize the Energy System

Both the off-grid and on-grid micro-hydro technologies we found in our research locations were typically “run-of-river,” with a wide range of capacities up to 3000 kW depending on geographical location, financial conditions, and technological sophistication. The majority of the people residing in our locations were farmers, but there were also builders, mechanics, and employees of nearby factories among them. Some also worked as small business owners, owning and operating small restaurants and coffee shops near tourist attractions. Despite their lack of formal training, each had experience in the infrastructure that has been used to develop micro-hydro.

Following Bryan Wynne’s (1989) study on communicating scientific knowledge in the aftermath of the Chernobyl disaster, and Collins and Evans’ (2002) work on expertise, we see local and credentialed experts as complementary, rather than as opposites. In our case, the relationship between local and credentialed experts varies depending on whether the micro-hydro system is on or off the grid. In on-grid micro-hydro, local experts offered their expertise, such as their experience with social and environmental analyses, that credentialed experts lack. On the other hand, in off-grid micro-hydro, credentialed experts helped to provide preliminary training, but most local experts worked alone without the assistance of credentialed experts. In other words, the role of credentialed experts in off-grid micro-hydro is limited.

Drawing on these relationships between local and credentialed experts, we now shift our attention to the kind of public engagement model that focuses on a series of activities that are meant to improve public participation in micro-hydro technology. In the public engagement model, the majority of public participation activities are motivated by a desire to “democratize” science, which delegates political engagement to the public (Brossard and Lewenstein 2010; Sclove 1995). However, in this case, their motivation is primarily focused on democratizing the energy system, as can be seen in Table 1.

Table 1 Public engagement in on-grid and off-grid micro-hydro technology.

	Local experts		Credentialed experts
Definition	People in a specific region who have gained extensive knowledge and skills in micro-hydro technology through direct experience, peer groups, observations, and learning from credentialed experts.		Individuals who possess formal degrees from accredited institutions, hold official job titles, and have received recognition from formal institutions as experts in their respective fields (Williams and Moore 2019).
	On-grid		Off-grid
Item	Local experts	Credentialed experts	Local experts		Credentialed experts
Claim	Sustainable alternative energy	Clean energy	Suitable energy technology		Energy justice
Commitment	Democratizing energy system	Empowering the social economy	Democratizing energy system	Empowering the social economy	Electrification
Assumption	Trickle-down benefits	Trickle-down benefits	Energy security		Accessible technology
Concern	Centralized expertise and policy	Multi-level governance’s complexity	Energy policy		Maintenance

There are three rationales for public engagement, namely instrumental, substantive, and normative (Delgado et al. 2011; Fiorino 1990; Stirling 2008). The primary distinction among these rationales is their respective objectives. With an instrumental rationale, the objective is to attain a predetermined goal, such as public trust; a substantive rationale implies that the purpose of public engagement is to effect social change. The last rationale is normative: it is viewed as what ought to be proper and focuses on the process, such as “democratizing” science. In our case, in on-grid micro-hydro, local experts were primarily motivated by interconnected substantive and normative rationales to improve energy supply through alternative energy sources and to democratize the energy system. In off-grid micro-hydro, however, they were primarily motivated by a combination of instrumental and normative rationales, namely the improvement of socioeconomic conditions and the democratization of the energy system. Decentralized energy systems are a reflection of their motivational impulses to shift how renewable energy is generated, supplied, and consumed in a sustainable way (Adil and Ko 2016; Herran and Nakata 2012). Additionally, local residents are in charge of managing the energy technology in this decentralized system (Chetri 2007).

Local experts who are farmers developed their knowledge and skills in micro-hydro by gathering information about using alternative energy technologies from their peer groups, observing the natural world and technological advancements, and learning from credentialed experts. The decision to develop micro-hydro rather than other alternative energy sources was made after local experts took into account the geographical conditions in the area, the potential benefits, the environment, the safety of the public, and the expertise required to handle such technology. In order to build the micro-hydro, local experts were acquiring expertise from their peer groups through informal conversations when they met in public hearings. Peer-to-peer information exchange groups about public services are popular in rural areas of Indonesia. These groups often incorporate not just knowledge but also values, authority, and resources (Suyadnya et al. 2022).

In our case, local experts undertook self-study, trips to other micro-hydro facilities, and peer learning once they had a shared understanding. Some were also trained by credentialed experts from the Bandung Institute of Technology (ITB), government agencies including the Agency for the Assessment and Application of Technology, and the Institute of Business and Populist Economics (IBEKA), a company focused on the production of renewable energy. The majority of the knowledge obtained from credentialed experts consisted of technical information – for example, how to map locations where there was the potential to construct micro-hydro, evaluate water debit, and make use of a map. Local experts used both their own experience and a map to analyze rivers, water, and the environment surrounding the locations in order to decide the site of the building of micro-hydro. There were no knowledge conflicts between local and credentialed experts. The knowledge gained from this process was crucial for both the construction and the maintenance of the micro-hydro once built. This learning process helped local experts to enhance their technical expertise on micro-hydro and ensured self-reliance in terms of micro-hydro maintenance and sustainability.

4.1 Off-Grid Micro-hydro System

In off-grid areas such as Igirklanceng, Ngesrepbalong, and Karangtengah, the development of micro-hydro was mostly for technical reasons, such as generating electricity for public spaces, households, and small businesses. Micro-hydro was intended to replace kerosene, which became scarce following the adoption of the new LPG policy. In Ngesrepbalong, for example, local experts learned from their fellow farmers of a simple water-wheel design as a prototype for micro-hydro, as illustrated in Figure 2. However, the same concern could not be found in Igirklanceng, where involvement of local experts was lacking in micro-hydro initiation. In Igirklanceng, a government agency designed and built the micro-hydro power plant in 2009 as part of the Self-Sufficient Village Energy Programme. This initiative, administered and launched by the Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources in 2007, was designed to promote the use of sustainable energy in Indonesian villages. When the Igirklanceng micro-hydro power plant began operation, several local experts were assigned to maintain and manage the facility through a small organization called Sinar Harapan. This internal dynamic often focused on upkeep and maintenance as its primary concern. Organization members, for example, were taught to do basic maintenance duties and electricity distribution. Such education was offered by the government agency, who also provided one training session for the operators—insufficient to help them solve the problems and challenges that came after. Hence, local experts did not have the necessary training and resources to do complicated repairs.

Figure 2 Local farmers studying hydroelectric technology (photo by the authors).

The Igirklanceng micro-hydro was intended to provide electricity to 150–180 households in the village. However, it was unable to generate enough electricity to meet this demand. This is because not enough water was available to turn the turbines. Due to the downstream location of the Igirklanceng micro-hydro, when residents living upstream took water from the river there was little left flowing down to the power plant. The modest organization Sinar Harapan was only responsible for the production, distribution, and use of energy among its members, and did not have power over the water management used to stimulate micro-hydro.

Deforestation surrounding the area also led to the drying up of the river. Deforestation is a major issue in micro-hydro development elsewhere, as a credentialed expert who has spent years working on the development of micro-hydro told us:

Only by protecting the forest can a sustainable water discharge be ensured. How would 1000 liters of water per second be available for 24 h if the forest is not protected? We used to have a 90 KW micro-hydro in South Cianjur [West Java], but the forest above was gradually converted into a golf course. As a result, the water that was previously capable of generating 90 KW of electricity was reduced to 30 KW. (Interview, 22 March 2021)

Moreover, the central government had issued regulations that allowed the conversion of protected forests, such as Government Regulation No. 2/2008 and Presidential Regulation No. 28/2011. This regulation contributed to increasing deforestation as it enabled the exploitation of forest areas for mining. In fact, Indonesian primary forest loss increased by 47,600 hectares per year on average between 2000 and 2012, totaling approximately 6.02 million hectares (Margono et al. 2014).

Along with deforestation, the Igirklanceng micro-hydro also had a slew of technical issues, according to the operator we spoke with. When machine or turbine parts were broken, the operator had to travel to the city to repair them. With the PLN electricity grid reaching Igirklanceng around 2013, people deemed the operating costs for the power plant too high to sustain. Along with a lack of technical and financial assistance from central government, the community decided to close the power plant that year. The decision to decommission the Igirklanceng micro-hydro can be seen as an extension of what Van Dijk et al. (2014) discovered in South Africa, where several small-scale hydropower plants were decommissioned just as the national grid reached their location. Some were decommissioned due to a lack of maintenance or outright neglect. When it came to Igirklanceng micro-hydro, local experts’ enthusiasm for this new technology was not backed by government support for maintenance and forest conservation. The majority of government projects in sustainable energy technologies, such as the Self-Sufficient Village Energy Programme, were geared toward introducing a new technology but lacked maintenance support in both social and technical terms.

This is decidedly different from the situation in Ngesrepbalong, where local experts who had heard about the micro-hydro project were very supportive of the ideas brought by local farmers. Those skilled as builders or mechanics in the area became involved in the construction and worked in their areas of expertise. For instance, builders’ responsibilities would include water flow measurement and pipe construction. The Ngesrepbalong micro-hydro was also constructed with the assistance of welders from a nearby tea factory. Local experts collected obsolete pipes, turbines, generators, and panels from the area surrounding the tea factory and rebuilt them into a micro-hydro power plant. This strategy was extremely beneficial in terms of reducing the construction expenses to be borne. This off-grid micro-hydro technology is now capable of supplying electricity to roads, individuals, and small businesses. They also established a small organization to manage electricity production, delivery, and consumption. There is an optional “membership” fee that covers regular maintenance. In contrast to Igirklanceng, Ngesrepbalong has its own river bank for micro-hydro only. Local experts aim to improve the micro-hydro technology so that it can help more communities.

In Karangtengah, the residents have more experience with micro-hydro. They started developing a micro-hydro system to generate electricity for households in early 2000. And, as shown in Figure 3, in 2015 the provincial government of Central Java provided funding for enhancement. Local experts formed a small organization called Sinar Alam (Natural Lights) to manage the maintenance of the micro-hydro after it was built. When the power plant’s turbine broke and the village’s electrical supply became insufficient, in 2016 local experts used the organization to propose to the regional government a grant. Their 16 years of experience in micro-hydro and dealing with bureaucracy helped their efforts in obtaining funding for the turbine’s replacement as well as the village’s purchase of a second, new water turbine. In collaboration with the provincial government and a third-party company, these local farmers successfully installed a new water turbine and connected it to the micro-hydro power plant. They are able to meet the energy needs of the village adequately due to the operation of two water turbines and widespread local support.

Figure 3 Micro-hydro funding declaration in Karangtengah (photo by the authors).

4.2 On-Grid Micro-hydro System

Micro-hydro technology in Kebumen and Baseh, where PLN electricity is available, was initiated by a farmers’ union and a private company, respectively. Instead of addressing the community’s energy needs, the technologies were built to earn economic benefits by integrating with the market. In Kebumen, the farmers’ union SPPQT had intended to generate sustainable energy and integrate it into the market through the PLN power grid, using the profits to empower farmers, provide training, promote education and child protection, and address other societal challenges in the region. In 2008, the union proposed a grant for a micro-hydro to Hivos, an international NGO based in the Netherlands. Through a competitive bidding process, the project was approved and the construction was passed over to IBEKA. While IBEKA handled the technical aspects of the construction, the farmers’ union was responsible for providing land, managing security, and acquiring permits, as well as environmental mapping. Technically, the Banyubiru micro-hydro in Kebumen was completed in 2012.

However, when the union signed a contract with PLN in Central Java in 2011, they had encountered several problems. To commercialize the micro-hydro, the union had to complete extensive administrative paperwork, while the micro-hydro’s technical components needed to meet the Indonesian National Standard (SNI). While standardized expertise is necessary, it does not usually take local situations into account, which in turn hinders commercialization initiatives from locals and credentialed experts. The union did not have sufficient experience with government regulations regarding micro-hydro commercialization. They were unable to fulfill all the requirements demanded by PLN, particularly those relating to gaining the Commissioning Certificate (SLO) which certifies that a power plant complies with national standards. As illustrated in Figure 4, the micro-hydro power plant in Kebumen ended up in a strange limbo. Although the micro-hydro was technically working, the union could not use it to generate electricity for themselves as they already signed an agreement to commercialize the micro-hydro with PLN.

Figure 4 Idle turbine room in Kebumen (photo by the authors).

There is, in fact, a regulation allowing the government to subsidize the construction of micro-hydro power plants—Energy and Mineral Resources Ministerial Regulation No. 8/2011. However, none of the informants we interviewed mentioned it. The regulation looks to be either insufficiently known about or excessively complicated. Another example of such complexity is the National Energy Policy (KEN), which is implemented through the National Energy Plan (RUEN). The central government delegates regional governments to arrange a Regional Energy Plan (RUED) based on local aspirations and initiatives. Once a RUED is completed, it can be adopted into the RUEN and regional governments can apply for funds from central government. This existing system is disadvantageous, as it necessitates a large number of requirements and procedures, which has frustrated some people. Such stifling regulation is something that even credentialed experts are frustrated with. While credentialed experts such as those in private companies tend to have technical expertise and financial strength, support from the government is just as essential to ensure that a micro-hydro project can go forward. In Baseh, despite the advantages of micro-hydro in achieving their goals, one credentialed expert stated that their plans for on-grid micro-hydro power plants had failed owing to bureaucratic complexity and a lack of government backing for renewable energy development. In addition, the rising number of coal-fired steam-power plants in the last 15 years is evidence that projects backed by large corporations appear to be greatly preferred by the central government, as Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources of Indonesia press releases of 4 May 2015 and 6 March 2020 show.

5 Conclusion

The public engagement in micro-hydro is a dynamic process driven largely by substantive, normative, and instrumental objectives, in particular the desire for energy system democratization. We have demonstrated that the direction in which public engagement in micro-hydro has developed differs considerably between locations as well as in outcome. There are a number of different internal and external forces at play during the process of designing, constructing, and maintaining micro-hydro technologies. The design and construction processes are frequently influenced by various technical considerations. The participation of credentialed experts is required in order to carry out technical measurements in both on-grid and off-grid micro-hydro systems. In addition to this, engaging local experts during the design phase facilitates the incorporation of local expertise and ensures that the micro-hydro is appropriately tailored to address the community’s needs. When the design and construction of micro-hydro are also significantly impacted by access to nearby materials and resources, public engagement enables local experts to identify and utilize readily available resources, fostering sustainable practices. When it comes to the maintenance of micro-hydro, there are often well-established processes in place to assure the long-term viability of the technology with just the minimum involvement of credentialed experts. These processes typically involve regular monitoring, maintenance, and repairs conducted by local experts. They are able to handle concerns in a quick and effective manner because of their familiarity with the location.

We have also demonstrated that micro-hydro is often associated with decentralization (local expertise, financial conditions, and geographical region), and, as a consequence, “centralized regulations” through standardized expertise have arisen as the most important institutional obstacle. The implementation of centralized regulations and standardized expertise has the potential to marginalize local experts from participating in decision-making processes. The presence of this institutional obstacle presents a noteworthy impediment to the expansion and enduring sustainability of micro-hydro. To address this obstacle, it will be crucial to promote decentralized policies that recognize and value local expertise. Decentralized policies have the potential to facilitate community ownership of energy needs and foster technological advances in micro-hydro through the advancement of public engagement and knowledge sharing. By engaging local experts in decision-making, their expertise and perspectives can be utilized to create solutions that are tailored to the specific context, enhance the results of the project, and guarantee the durability of micro-hydro. Lastly, public engagement supported by decentralized policies is essential for generating fresh growth and assuring the long-term viability of micro-hydro. Making it possible to incorporate local expertise in the design, construction, and maintenance processes encourages the development of methods and solutions that are appropriate to the particular geographical region. It enables local communities to take charge of the technology’s governance and longevity.

Disclosure Statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Additional information

Funding

This research was financed by the Takagi Fund for Citizen Science (grant number 203-008), and some of the material was created as a part of the Climate Compatible Growth program, which is funded by UK government aid. However, the views expressed herein do not necessarily reflect the UK government's official policies.

Notes on contributors

Pratama Yudha Pradheksa

Pratama Yudha Pradheksa is a second-year doctoral student in the Science and Technology Studies (STS) Department at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute.

Putri Cahya Arimbi

Putri Cahya Arimbi is an undergraduate student in International Relations at UIN Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta.

Dian Tamitiadini

Dian Tamitiadini is a lecturer at Universitas Brawijaya's Department of Communication Science with a focus on disaster and environmental communication studies. She earned a Master's in Communication Science from Universitas Indonesia. She also took part in community-based disaster management courses in Hyderabad, India's National Institute of Rural Development.