Historical Development of the Archives of Environmental & Occupational Health and its Predecessor Journals, 1919–2009

ABSTRACT

The Archives of Environmental & Occupational Health (AEOH) has a long and distinguished history that has so far involved a total of 7 journal titles since 1919. This article provides a detailed historical review of the AEOH, from its seminal precursors of the early 20th century, into the distinguished periodical of today. As editorial leadership is known to influence journal quality, considerable discussion focuses on the careers and professional achievements of the Editors-in-Chief, as well as key members of the editorial board who served the AEOH and its predecessor journals over the past 90 years.

KEYWORDS:

• development
• editor
• environmental
• history
• journal publishing
• occupational

The printing and publication of books formed an integral part of the Renaissance, and during the subsequent scientific revolution, a new breed of scientists began disseminating their work to the public, usually in Latin. ¹ By 1665, the first scientific journals had been established in Great Britain (Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society) and France (Journal des Sçavans, later renamed Journal des Savants). ^{2 , 3} Continuing social, economic, and technological advances allowed a literate and leisured class to arise in Europe during the 16th and 17th centuries. ⁴ The first medical journal appeared in France during 1679, and this was followed by the earliest periodical dealing with scientific matters of the American colonies, Transactions of the American Philosophical Society (Philadelphia), first published in 1771. ² In 1788 the first transactions of a United States (US) medical society, Cases and Observations of the Medical Society of New Haven County, were published. ⁵ This was followed by the first US medical journal, the Medical Repository, which was published quarterly between 1797 and 1824. ⁶ By the 19th century, some of the now famous contemporary medical journals began to appear, such as the New England Journal of Medicine in 1812 and the Lancet in 1823. Medical journals of specialist fields followed in Great Britain during 1858 and the US in 1868. ⁷

America experienced a virtual explosion of urban and manufacturing centers in the decades following the Civil War. ⁸ Commitment to public health had developed relatively slowly, however, and it not until poor conditions were adequately documented by reformers such as Benjamin W. McCready (1813–1892), that changes began to occur. ^{9 , 10 , 11} The development of occupational medicine was catalyzed by the publication of various reports and descriptions of industrial diseases that began appearing as social protest movements developed momentum. These societal changes gradually led to the development of workplace-related legislation. An early form of workers’ compensation was enacted by Congress in 1797, followed by the first child-labor laws of 1836. As part of the third annual report for the Michigan State Board of Health in 1875, the Reverend Charles H. Brigham wrote an essay titled “The Influence of Occupations Upon Health.” ¹² Academic interest in worker's health was also occurring on the other side of the Atlantic. In December 1901, the world's first journal of occupational health, Il Lavoro—Rivista di Fisiologia, Clinica ed Igiene del Lavoro (later to become La Medicina del Lavoro) was founded in Italy. ¹³ The first official industrial hygiene survey performed in the US was undertaken 1 year later during 1902, ¹⁴ with the results published in 1903. ¹⁵

By the late 19th century, railway medicine and surgery had emerged in America as a distinct field of occupational health, providing health care for sick and injured railroad workers. ¹⁰ The first official railway surgeon was Dr James P. Quinn of West Virginia, ¹⁶ and in 1888 the National Association of Railway Surgeons (NARS) was formed in Chicago. ¹⁷ The association began publishing transactions of its annual meetings in the Railway Age, ¹⁸ which later became the Railway Surgeon in mid-1894. ¹⁹ In 1903 the Pacific Association of Railway Surgeons was founded, incorporating physicians from the Southern Pacific, Sante Fe, and Western Pacific companies. ²⁰ The journal Railway Surgeon would eventually undergo a series of changes and ownerships, ¹⁹ starting with a title change to the Railway Surgical Journal in 1904 and The Surgical Journal Devoted to Traumatic and Industrial Surgery in 1921. ²¹

US Workers’ Compensation (or Workmen's Compensation, as it was then known), officially began in 1911, although it would not expand nationwide until 1948. ²² From an academic perspective, changes were afoot around this time, with 4 papers describing occupational diseases being presented to the New York Academy of Medicine in 1912. ¹⁵ In what would later be seen as laying the foundation for scientific literature in American industrial medicine, the 15th International Congress on Hygiene and Demography was held in 1912. ²³ In 1914, an Office of Industrial Hygiene and Sanitation was established in the US Public Health Service. ²⁴ One year later, in 1915, US occupational medicine took a great leap forward with organization of the American Association of Industrial Physicians and Surgeons (AAIPS), ²⁵ who held their first official meeting in 1916. ²⁶ The First World War had a significant influence on its activities, however, and between 1916 and 1919 the Association's professional focus was almost entirely dictated by government needs. That being the maximum utilization of available manpower, the conservation of health for maximum industrial production and the rehabilitation of sick and disabled veterans. ²⁷ Even so, with the formation of a professional society for occupational medicine, the stage was now set for a dedicated academic journal in this field.

JOURNAL OF INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE (1919–1935)

The Journal of Industrial Hygiene (JIH) was first published in May 1919 as the official organ of the AAIPS. David L. Edsall (1869–1945) and Albert F. Stanley Kent (1863–1958) were appointed as foundation editors, alongside one Honorary Consulting Editor, 17 Associate Editors, and two Managing Editors. Refer to Table 1. Edsall was a driving force behind the journal's formation, being Dean of Harvard Medical School ²⁸ during a crucial period of its development (1918–1935), ²⁹ and later being lauded as a leading figure in American medical education. ³⁰ It has been suggested that one of his great strengths was to identify promising young talent who would then be sent away for postgraduate research training. Upon their return, these individuals would carry on as Edsall's staff, thereby building research competence in various fields. ³⁰ Many of his protégés would go on to become distinguished in their own right. Much of the journal's early history can probably be attributed to Edsall, who had first become interested in occupational medicine while working in Philadelphia between 1900 and 1909, where he noticed that steel mill workers were suffering from “heat stress,” although such a condition was not officially recognised at the time. In 1914, Edsall described the relationship between industry and general medicine ³¹ and in a 1919 article from the JIH, reported his views on the need for industrial disease clinics in general hospitals. ³² Between 1917 and 1923, Harvard University had received funding to establish work in industrial hygiene, ³³ which helped further the cause of occupational medicine and was no doubt a catalyst in the formation of the journal itself. The choice of “industrial hygiene” as the journal's title no doubt reflects prevailing influences of the day, as too, the choice of a physician as Editor-in-Chief. Many early industrial hygienists in the US were physicians. ³⁴

Table 1 Journal of Industrial Hygiene Editorial Board (Volume 1, May 1919–April 1920)

Editors

David L. Edsall (United States), A. F. Stanley Kent (Great Britain)

Honorary Consulting Editor

Thomas M. Legge

Associate Editors

United States

W. Irving Clark Jr., Alice Hamilton, Emery R. Hayhurst, Yandell Henderson, William H. Howell, Frederic S. Lee, Harry E. Mock, J. W. Schereschewsky, C.-E. A. Winslow

Great Britain

E. L. Collis, F. W. Dearden, Sheridan Delépine, Sir Kenneth Goadby, Leonard Hill, W.J. O’Donovan, Sir Thomas Oliver, R. Prosser White

Managing Editors

Cecil K. Drinker, Katherine R. Drinker

David Edsall's co-Editor-in-Chief, Albert Stanley Kent, was Professor of Physiology at the University of Bristol in Great Britain. ³⁵ Although not related to occupational health, per se, Kent was well-known in his own right after describing what would later be known as the “Kent's Bundle.”³⁶ Although an important discovery in mammalian physiology, contemporary debate lingers as to whether this term is actually appropriate. ^{36 , 37} Nevertheless, Kent also had a keen interest in occupational medicine, and one that began during the First World War when he investigated the problems of industrial fatigue, and was furthered in 1918 when he headed a Department of Industrial Administration at the Manchester Municipal Technical College. ³⁸ The JIH included another British member in its senior editorial ranks, with the appointment of Thomas M. Legge (1863–1932) as an Honorary Consulting Editor. Legge was an influential British occupational physician who helped lay foundations for modern occupational health regulation in the UK ¹⁰ and achieved much in his professional lifetime. ³⁹ From a research perspective, Legge's investigation of brass founders’ ague is believed to be one of the first uses of a standardized questionnaire in occupational epidemiology. ⁴⁰ After training in medicine at St. Bartholomew's Hospital, Legge was appointed the UK's first medical factory inspector in 1898 ⁴⁰ and over the next 28 years built the inspectorate into the world's first modern occupational health and safety agency. ¹⁰ Legge resigned from his post in 1926 when the British government refused to ratify the White Lead Convention, and would subsequently become the first medical advisor to the Trades Unions Congress. ⁴⁰ His first famous text (coauthored with Kenneth W. Goadby), Lead Poisoning and Lead Absorption: The Symptoms, Pathology and Prevention, With Special Reference to Their Industrial Origin and an Account of the Principal Processes Involving Risk, was published in 1912. ⁴¹ Throughout his professional life Legge would inspire a whole host of students, including Andrew Meiklejohn, ⁴² an Editor-in-Chief of the British Transactions of the Association of Industrial Medical Officers. ¹³ Legge also collected a great deal of material for what was to be his last book, Industrial Maladies, which was published posthumously following his unexpected death in 1932. ⁴³ Interestingly and somewhat poignantly, Legge left instructions that his tombstone not be made of a material that might cause dust-related disease. ⁴⁰

Aside from Edsall and Kent, other noteworthy individuals in US occupational medicine were also appointed to the editorial board. Alice Hamilton (1869–1970) was probably one of the most influential occupational physicians of her time, and is now widely considered to be a founder of regulatory toxicology and industrial hygiene in the US. ¹⁰ In 1910, she was appointed chief investigator for the Illinois State Commission on Industrial Diseases in 1910, ⁴⁴ one of the first attempts to study occupational diseases in the US. ⁴⁵ It was not an easy position, however, with Hamilton later recounting how industrial medicine did not exist in the US during this period, and how industrial surgery had been largely discredited. ⁴⁶ In 1919 she was appointed as the first female faculty member at Harvard University, ⁴⁴ and by 1935 had become Professor Emeritus. ⁴⁷ In 1925 Hamilton published an important text titled: Industrial Poisons in the United States, ⁴⁸ and would go on to write an autobiography, Exploring the Dangerous Trades, in 1943. ⁴⁹ Aside from her undoubted talent and dedication to science, Hamilton had always envisaged occupational health in a broader social context, having begun her career at one of the most influential reform movements of the time, Hull House in Chicago, an institution where idealists from around the world were gathering to help address societal inequities of the day. ⁴⁴ She had also developed a deep trust and respect for the plight of immigrant workers following her residency at Hull House, ⁵⁰ at a time when many an immigrant's desire for a better life in the US was being exploited by their employers. ⁵¹ After her death in 1970 aged 101, Hamilton would be rightly lauded as not only a pioneering figure in occupational medicine and industrial toxicology, ⁵¹ (traditionally male-dominated professions), but also as a leading social activist and reformer.

Joseph W. Schereschewsky (1873–1940) was another pioneering figure on the JIH's editorial board, and one who recognized early on the importance of collaboration between existing private medical groups in order to inspire workers’ health and safety. ⁴⁵ Between 1913 and 1937, he served in the US Public Health Service (PHS), being officer in charge of field investigations of occupational disease between 1913 and 1918. ⁵² In 1915 Schereschewsky published a article describing an examination of garment workers in New York, namely operators, pressers, finishers, cutters, and miscellaneous workers. ⁵³ Although no single disease was detected that could be peculiar to garment workers, tuberculosis was present in approximately 3% of workers examined. ⁵⁴ One year later in 1916, Schereschewsky outlined a broad educational plan for the prevention of occupational diseases and injuries. ⁵⁵ In 1922 he proposed that the PHS inaugurate a program of cancer research, which was accepted along with the right to choose the location of his work. An invitation from the Professor of Preventive Medicine and Hygiene at Harvard Medical School, M. J. Rosenau, led Schereschewsky to relocate to Boston. ⁵²

Harry E. Mock (1880–1959) had been instrumental in founding the AAIPS, and had also established one of the first occupational medicine clinics within an academic medical centre, the Rush Medical College in Chicago. ¹⁰ Mock worked as chief surgeon for Sears, Roebuck, prior to the First World War, coining his famous slogan: “Physical qualifications, plus occupational qualifications, equal a job.” ⁵⁶ In 1919 he published an authoritative text titled Industrial Medicine and Surgery, which helped develop a general theory of occupational medicine. ¹⁰ Mock had also championed the emerging field of job placement while at Sears, by specifically picking jobs for disabled applicants, rather than choosing only those who were fit and discarding the others. ⁵⁶ With his colleague, John S. Coulter (1885–1949), ^{57 , 58} Mock established at St. Luke's Hospital, what would eventually become a model unit for physical therapy and rehabilitation throughout the country. His reputation in this field was further bolstered in 1932 when Mock edited a 3-volume treatise on the Principles and Practice of Physical Therapy. ⁵⁹

Robert Prosser White (1855–1934) was a British physician appointed as Associate Editor on the original JIH. Prosser White was a pioneering figure in occupational dermatology, ⁶⁰ having been Physician-in-Charge of the skin department at the Royal Albert Edward Infirmary, a position which gave him first-hand knowledge of skin diseases then affecting the working populations of local industries. ⁶¹ Prosser White's landmark text, Occupational Affections of the Skin. Their Prevention and Treatment with an Account of the Trade Processes and Agents Which Give Rise to Them (First Edition 1915, Second Edition 1920), ⁶² would later be seen as the definitive reference for occupational skin disease. ⁶³ Later editions of his book had “The Dermatergoses” added to their title, a Greek term used to denote affections of the skin due to work. ⁶⁴ Prosser White proudly displayed his editorial role with the JIH on the inside cover of these books. ⁶²

The JIH had a succession of publishers during its early years, starting with the Macmillan Company (Volume 1), followed by the Harvard Medical School (Volumes 3–7), the Harvard School of Public Health (Volumes 8–14), and Williams & Wilkins (from Volume 15). ⁶⁵ Although there may have been a frequent change of publishers, publication of the JIH was no doubt a pioneering effort, being the first monthly journal to dedicate itself exclusively to occupational hygiene in the US. ⁶⁶ Volume 1 of the JIH ran from May 1919 to April 1920, comprising mainly literature reviews and historical articles. In 1922 the JIH signed a contract giving it exclusive rights to publish papers presented at meetings of the AAIPS. ²⁷ The journal eventually issued a total of 17 volumes by November 1935, and in doing so became the first English-language journal to deal exclusively with the problems of industrial health. ⁶⁷ Interestingly, the early 1930s would also witness the dawn of a new era in which industrial hygiene was to achieve greater prominence in the US, ⁶⁸ alongside some other related periodicals of industrial medicine, railway medicine, and surgery.

By the 1930s, for example, the AAIPS had established a quarterly publication known as the Bulletin of the American Association of Industrial Physicians & Surgeons (BAAIPS), edited by Volney S. Cheney, who had inherited the role since agreeing to serve as Acting Secretary of AAIPS in 1928. ⁶⁹ A lawyer and champion of workers’ rights, Arthur D. Cloud (1884–1966), had also established a magazine titled Industrial Relations in November 1930. By 1932 Durwald R. Jones had introduced Cloud to Clarence O. Sappington, then Director of the National Safety Council's Division of Industrial Health. ⁷⁰ In October 1932 the first issue of Industrial Medicine (IM) was founded, ³⁴ with Jones as Editor and Cloud as Managing Editor. In the late 1930s, the International Journal of Medicine and Surgery and the journal Industrial Doctor, were acquired by, and consolidated with, IM. ⁶⁹ Sappington became the journal's first Editor-in-Chief in 1940 and would remain so until his death in 1949. The journal also adopted a new title, Industrial Medicine and Surgery (IMS), in the same year. ⁶⁹ For 2 issues prior to that, however, the journal had been briefly known as Industrial Medicine and Surgery of Trauma (IMST). ⁷⁰ IMS would eventually become the present day journal, Occupational Health & Safety, in 1973. ⁷¹

JOURNAL OF INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE AND TOXICOLOGY (1936–1949)

In January 1936, the JIH's name was amended to include the word “toxicology” in the title, thus becoming the Journal of Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology (JIHT). Volume numbers from the original JIH were continued, and as a result, the JIHT began its life as Volume 18. It has been noted that this move resulted in the foundation of the first professional journal specifically dedicated to the field of industrial health. ⁷² David L. Edsall of the JIH remained on the editorial board of the newly named journal, although the position of Chief Editor appears not to have been clearly listed. Refer to Table 2. During this period, the US medical profession was also being affected by various social forces. Despite a growing physician shortage, especially in rural areas, many state boards of medical examiners and state regulations prohibited foreign physicians from practicing. At the same time, the number of refugee physicians entering the US had been increasing since Hitler came to power in prewar Germany. ³⁰ Edsall was an early supporter of overseas-trained physicians, and by the 1940s had published an article calling for the resettlement of foreign physicians in the US. ⁷³ Among the JIHT's editorial board, Edsall was not alone in his support of foreigners. Alice Hamilton, for example, had been instrumental in bringing Dr Ludwig Teleky out of Germany prior to the Second World War. ⁴⁴ Teleky was already a pioneering figure in his own right, having been a founding editor of the German periodical Archiv für Gewerbepathologie und Gewerbehygiene with Heinrich Zangger (1874–1957), which would eventually become the modern day International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health. ¹³

Table 2 Journal of Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology Editorial Board (Volume 18, January–December 1936)

EditorsDavid L. Edsall (United States), Edgar L. Collis (Great Britain)

Associate Editors United StatesCecil K. Drinker, L. U. Gardner, Alice Hamilton, Emery R. Hayhurst, Yandell Henderson, H. H. Kessler, Walter R. Miles, W. F. von Oettingen, R. R. Sayers, C.-E. A. Winslow, William P. YantGreat BritainThomas Bedford, John C. Bridge, D. A. Coles, E. L. Collis, Sir Kenneth Goadby, S. A. Henry, Sir Leonard Hill, Sybil Horner, E. R. A. Merewether, E. L. Middleton, Sir Thomas Oliver, H. M. VernonOther CountriesL. Teleky (Austria and Germany); Charles Badham (Australia); Charles Herbert Best (Canada); Tomoyoshi Ishikawa (Japan); E. H. Cluver (South Africa)

Managing EditorsPhilip Drinker, W. Irving Clark, Helen Lawson

Editorial greatness may be inheritable, with David Edsall having a famous son, John T. Edsall (1902–2002), ⁷⁴ noted biochemist who eventually served as Editor-in-Chief at the Journal of Biological Chemistry for 10 years between 1958 and 1967, ⁷⁵ during which time he helped guide the journal to a leading position in its field. ⁷⁶ Alongside David Edsall at the JIHT, was a co-Editor from Great Britain, Edgar L. Collis (1870–1957). Collis had been a medical inspector of factories for the British Home Office since 1908 and soon became a leading authority on pneomoconiosis. He was later appointed as a Professor of Preventive Medicine and coauthored his famous book, The Health of the Industrial Worker, ⁷⁷ in 1921. Collis had also been a founding member of the British Medical Research Council's (MRC) Statistics Committee between 1920 and 1939, ⁷⁸ and had served on the Miners’ Welfare Commission for over 30 years. ⁷⁹ He would eventually occupy the role of British Editor at the JIH and JIHT between 1922 and 1936. ⁷⁹

Aside from David Edsall and 3 prominent members of the Drinker family (who will be described in detail later), various other American members of the original JIH editorial board had also remained on the JIHT: Alice Hamilton, Emery Hayhurst, Yandell Henderson, and C.-E. A. Winslow. The career of Alice Hamilton has been previously described. Emery R. Hayhurst (1880–1961) was a respected industrial hygienist with the Ohio State Board of Health, and an early opponent of night shifts, especially for female employees. ⁸⁰ As well as serving on the editorial boards of the JIH and JIHT, Hayhurst had also been an Associate Editor with the American Journal of Public Health (AJPH) between 1917 and 1934, and their Advisory Editor in the field of industrial hygiene, ⁸¹ publishing a range of articles on this topic over time. ^{82 , 83 , 84 , 85} On the other hand, however, Hayhurst would later emerge as a key supporter of tetraethyl lead being added to gasoline. ⁸⁶ Yandell Henderson (1873–1944) was a pioneering figure in American respiratory physiology, having directed investigations by the US Bureau of Mines for the protection of workers against mine gases. ⁸⁷ Henderson was an early advocate for the tail pipes of cars, buses, and trucks to be pointed vertically upwards so that exhaust gases would be vented away from the vehicles. ⁸⁸ He entered Yale University in 1891 and would later hold in succession the Chairs of Physiology and Applied Physiology. ⁸⁹ Unlike Hayhurst, Henderson was a strong critic of lead being added to gasoline, and firmly believed that it was a serious public health menace. ⁸⁶

Charles-Edward Amory Winslow (1877–1957) founded the Department of Public Health at Yale University in 1915, where he was to remain as Chairman until 1945 and Professor Emeritus until his death in 1957. ⁹⁰ Many years earlier, in 1905, Winslow had offered the first university course on the principals of industrial hygiene. ⁹¹ Aside from being an editor at the JIH and JIHT, Winslow had also been Editor of the AJPH between 1944 and 1954, ⁹² President of the American Public Health Association (APHA) in 1926, ⁹¹ and the first Editor-in-Chief of the Journal of Bacteriology. ⁹³ His 1950 paper ⁹⁴ describing opportunities for the industrial hygiene section of the APHA was timely, with this and his other influences at Yale being comprehensively described elsewhere. ^{95 , 96 , 97}

The scope of industrial hygiene as a field was steadily expanding during this time, alongside other advances in adult medicine. ⁹⁸ Conceptual changes were also afoot as industrial hygiene began to emerge as its own distinctive speciality, independent from medicine. In June 1940 the AAIPS held its 25th annual meeting and the American Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA) its first, one of the most important gatherings in the history of either group. ⁹⁹ Other factions began to form their own specialist groups, as well, including the American Association of Industrial Nurses (AAIN) in 1942 and the American Association of Industrial Dentists (AAID) in 1943. ⁷² This period also saw publication of one of the first attempts to objectively classify scientific periodicals, with Casey's 1942 article ¹⁰⁰ on the influence of North American and British journals, including some reference to the original JIH. Despite being mentioned in the articles of others, things did not always run smoothly for the JIHT, however, due to an uneven supply of publishable manuscripts. Jonas ²⁸ for example, recounted how 1946 was a particularly bad year for the journal, during which time its entire print run comprised only 281 pages. Interest in occupational medicine was increasing, however, with 1946–1947 heralding the start of formal training programs for medical graduates in a new field then known as Industrial Medicine. ¹⁰¹ The JIHT no doubt benefited from these societal changes. Volume numbers for the new title had followed on from the original JIH, giving a total of 31 volumes published over 2 journal titles, with 14 volumes of the JIHT being published up to November 1949.

ARCHIVES OF INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE AND OCCUPATIONAL MEDICINE (1950)

The 1950s saw a series of conflicts within the US medical profession, mostly fought between general practitioners advocating fee-for-service on one side, and corporate medical practice (of which occupational medicine was a part) on the other. ¹⁰ January 1950 marked a key turning point for the JIHT when it was taken over by the American Medical Association (AMA) who merged it with their own journal, Occupational Medicine (Chicago) (OM). ⁷² Other periodicals have since used similar names to the latter publication, and as such, Occupational Medicine (Chicago) should not be confused with Occupational Medicine (Philadelphia), which ran from 1986 until 2002, and Occupational Medicine (Oxford), which began in 1992 and still publishes today. OM (Chicago) was originally founded in 1946 with a physician named William A. Sawyer (1884–1982) as Editor-in-Chief, although publication of the journal was suspended by 1948. ⁶⁵ Refer to Table 3. Sawyer had been Secretary-Treasurer of the AAIPS between 1921 and 1923, ²⁷ and later President, ¹⁰² and would be recognized for helping to establish the American Academy of Occupational Medicine (AAOM). ¹⁰³ Sawyer had also been Medical Director of the Eastman Kodak Company, a position he would hold for 31 years, ¹⁰⁴ and while working there during the Second World War had pointed out the benefits of hiring handicapped workers. ¹⁰⁵ Sawyer was a Fellow of the American Public Health Association (APHA), promoting occupational health in APHA conferences ¹⁰⁶ and journal articles. ¹⁰⁷ By the 1950s, the International Association of Machinists (IAM) had invited Sawyer to set up a medical department and serve as their first medical consultant, ¹⁰⁸ a position he accepted. He would then go on to write a weekly column titled “Live Longer” in the Labor News magazine. ¹⁰⁹

Table 3 Occupational Medicine (Chicago) Editorial Board (Volume 1, 1946 to Volume 5, 1948)

Volume 1, 1946

Chief Editor: William A. Sawyer

Editorial Board: A. J. Lanza, Rexford L. Diveley, Willard Machle, Winfred Overholser, Clarence D. Selby, Arthur L. Watkins

Volume 5, 1948

Chief Editor: William A. Sawyer

Editorial Board: A. J. Lanza, Willard Machle, Winfred Overholser, Carl M. Peterson, Howard A. Rusk, Clarence D. Selby, Rexford L. Diveley

Aside from Sawyer's career, things were also changing at the JIHT, and as a result of its merger with OM (Chicago), it officially became the Archives of Industrial Hygiene and Occupational Medicine (AIHOM) in 1950. Philip Drinker (1894–1972) was appointed Editor-in-Chief, with Sawyer remaining on the editorial board. Refer to Table 4. Drinker was a distinguished chemical engineer from Harvard, who had helped create the first industrial hygiene department at an academic institution, ¹¹⁰ and was also responsible for inventing the famous “iron lung.” ¹¹¹ No satisfactory mechanical respirator had existed prior to this time, ¹¹² and so important was Drinker's invention that its associated report published in 1929 would later become a Landmark Article of the Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA). ¹¹³ In 1950 Drinker received the Donald E. Cummings Memorial Award from the AIHA for outstanding contributions to the knowledge and practice of industrial hygiene, ¹¹⁴ having previously served as the Association's president in 1942. ¹¹⁵ During the 1950s he would also publish a series of important articles on the topic of industrial health and industrial hygiene. ^{116 , 117 , 118} Philip Drinker would eventually serve on the journals’ editorial boards for over 30 years, between 1927 and 1960. ³⁰

Table 4 Archives of Industrial Hygiene and Occupational Medicine Editorial Board (Volume 1, January 1950)

Chief Editor

Philip Drinker

Editorial Board

Theodore F. Hatch, Robert A. Kehoe, Frank A. Patty, Fenn E. Poole, Frank Princi, William A. Sawyer, James H. Sterner

Managing Editor

Richard J. Plunkett

Interestingly, although Edsall and Kent were Chief Editors of the AIHOM's predecessor journals, the editorial board members most frequently associated with its early years were a trio of Harvard academics, including the aforementioned Philip Drinker, his brother Cecil K. Drinker (1887–1956), and sister-in-law, Katherine R. Drinker (1889–1956). ¹¹⁹ Cecil Drinker was a Professor of Physiology at Harvard, ¹²⁰ a position he held until retirement in 1948. ¹²¹ He occupied the position of Assistant Dean at the School of Public Health between 1924 and 1935, and Dean thereafter. ¹²² Katherine Drinker, also a physician, had been closely involved in the daily running of the original JIH. ⁶⁷ Interestingly, the AIHOM would go on to publish only 2 volumes between January and September of 1950, before another title change was made.

A.M.A. ARCHIVES OF INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE AND OCCUPATIONAL MEDICINE (1950–1954)

In October 1950 the AIHOM's title was updated again to include the “A.M.A.” prefix, thus becoming the A.M.A. Archives of Industrial Hygiene and Occupational Medicine (AMA-AIHOM) published by the AMA of Chicago, Illinois. The AMA had earlier established a Council on Industrial Health in 1937. ¹²³ Philip Drinker remained Editor-in-Chief of the newly named journal, and the former AIHOM editorial board also continued. It consisted of Theodore F. Hatch, Robert A. Kehoe, Frank A. Patty, Fenn E. Poole, Frank Princi, William A. Sawyer, and James H. Sterner, with Richard J. Plunkett as Managing Editor. Refer to Table 5. For better or for worse, at least 2 of the editorial board would achieve later fame in occupational medicine. Theodore F. Hatch (1901–1986), a civil engineer and industrial hygienist, had previously worked at Harvard University with Alice Hamilton (who had been on the JIH and JIHT editorial boards) as well as with the brothers Cecil and Philip Drinker. ¹²⁴ He served as chief industrial hygiene engineer at the New York Department of Labor, Division of Industrial Hygiene, and later with the US Armored Forces Medical Research Laboratories during the Second World War. ¹²⁵ Hatch went on to become Professor of Industrial Health Engineering at Pittsburgh University, and would later have an occupational health symposium named in his honor. ¹²⁶

Table 5 A.M.A. Archives of Industrial Hygiene and Occupational Medicine Editorial Board (Volume 4, 1951)

Chief Editor

Philip Drinker

Editorial Board

Theodore F. Hatch, Robert A. Kehoe, Frank A. Patty, Fenn E. Poole, Frank Princi, William A. Sawyer, James H. Sterner

Managing Editor

Richard J. Plunkett

Robert A. Kehoe (1893–1992) had commenced a university-based research program for the study of lead compound in 1924, which would later become the Kettering Laboratory at the University of Cincinnati in 1930. ¹²⁷ Kehoe was an outspoken researcher on lead toxicity in the US who exerted significant influence on government policy, particularly in relation to lead being added to gasoline as an antiknock compound. ¹²⁸ By the late 1940s, Kehoe had persuaded industry sponsors that his laboratory be expanded, an outcome that led to greater academic responsibility and eventual promotion to Professor and Chairman of the Department of Preventive Medicine, as well as to Director of the Institute of Industrial Health. ¹²⁹ Kehoe would later chair an Interim American Board of Occupational Medicine during the 1950s. ³⁴

Another AAIHOM editor, Frank A. Patty (1897–1981), was a pioneer in industrial hygiene who had served as eighth President of the American Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA) in 1946, and later as Director of the Division of Industrial Hygiene at the General Motors Corporation. ¹³⁰ His famous text, (Patty's) Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology, was first published as a single volume in 1948, ¹³¹ before being updated in 1958. ¹³² During the 1950s and 1960s, Patty would become involved in a major scientific dispute of the time regarding whether automobiles were actively contributing to the smog problem of Los Angeles. ¹³³ During 1951, he also published an important article on the role of industrial hygiene in industry. ¹³⁴

Fenn E. Poole (1906–1952) graduated with a medical degree from the College of Medical Evangelists, Los Angeles, in 1932, and took up a position as Medical Director of the Lockheed Aircraft Corporation in 1938. In 1945 Poole established his own industrial health clinic in California, and served on the AAIPS board of directors between 1942 and 1946. ¹³⁵ By the late 1940s, Poole had been appointed as an Associate Editor for the AMA-AIHOM and the Annals of Western Medicine and Surgery, 2 positions he would keep until his untimely death in 1952. In the same year, shortly before his death, Poole coauthored a detailed article on industrial noise and its control. ¹³⁶

Frank Princi (1911–1963) received his medical education at the University of Colorado and during his junior year met the eminent industrial hygienist, Donald E. Cummings, who was then establishing a Division of Industrial Hygiene within the Department of Medicine. Princi was greatly inspired by Cummings and henceforth devoted his professional life to the field of industrial medicine. ¹³⁷ Princi had been a Rockefeller Fellow in Industrial Hygiene and General Medicine prior to the Second World War, although he would enter military service in 1942 and serve with some distinction. He later became the sole physician on an advisory board for the Air Training Command of the US Air Force, where basic and comprehensive reviews of toxicological problems were then being undertaken. Princi eventually became Professor of Industrial Medicine at the University of Cincinnati College of Medicine and would serve on the AMA-AIHOM and its successor's editorial boards for 12 years. ¹³⁸

James H. Sterner (1904–1992) was an industrial toxicologist who had originally trained as a physician and had planned to practice internal medicine. His career changed, however, upon an invitation from William A. Sawyer to join the Eastman Kodak Company and develop a laboratory for industrial medicine. ¹³⁹ In 1948 Sterner served as president of the American Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA) ¹¹⁵ and in 1960 became president of the American College of Preventive Medicine (ACPM). ¹⁴⁰ In 1963 he delivered the Adolph G. Kammer Lecture sponsored by the American Academy of Occupational Medicine (AAOM) and 1 year later published a paper based on his presentation. ¹⁴¹ By 1968, Sterner had accepted the position of Professor of Environmental Health at the University of Texas, ¹⁴² and in 1978 delivered the Rutherford T. Johnstone Memorial Lecture for the Western Occupational and Environmental Medical Association (WOEMA). ¹⁴³ Sterner and his colleague Harold Hodge would later become famous for their toxicity table, whereby chemicals were classified in 6 categories ranging from “relatively harmless” to “extremely toxic.” ¹³⁹

Various members of the AMA-AIHOM editorial board eventually served as AIHA president; Robert A. Kehoe in 1945, Frank A. Patty in 1946, Theodore F. Hatch in 1947, and James H. Sterner in 1948. ¹¹⁵ Some would also receive the AIHA's Donald E. Cummings Memorial Award: Theodore F. Hatch in 1951, Frank A. Patty in 1954, and James H. Sterner in 1955. ¹⁴⁴ In 1962 and 1975, Robert A. Kehoe delivered the Cummings Memorial Lecture to the AIHA. ¹¹⁴ Exactly how much these people influenced the journal's direction is not certain, but either way, the AMA-AIHOM would eventually run for 5 years, publishing a total of 9 volumes between October 1950 and December 1954. Volume numbers had followed on from the earlier journal (AIHOM), thereby leading to a total of 10 volumes under the 2 different titles during this period.

A.M.A. ARCHIVES OF INDUSTRIAL HEALTH (1955–1960)

In 1955 a Division of Occupational Medicine was created under the American Board of Preventive Medicine. ¹⁴⁵ In January of that year, the AMA-AIHOM shortened its name to the A.M.A. Archives of Industrial Health (AMA-AIH). Philip Drinker remained as Chief Editor, ¹⁴⁶ albeit with a revised editorial board comprising 8 members, of which only Frank Princi had been retained from the earlier titles. Refer to Table 6. One of the new editorial board members was Herbert E. Stokinger (1909–1998), an industrial hygienist who served 15 years as chairman of the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) Threshold Limit Values (TLV®) Committee, and would eventually be known as “Mr TLV.” ¹⁴⁷ Stokinger's introduction to industrial hygiene had begun in 1943 when he was seconded into the Manhattan Project to help determine inhalation toxicities for uranium, beryllium, and other compounds to which workers involved in production of the atomic bomb were then being exposed. ¹⁴⁷ His main professional interests were evident in a 1955 article describing what toxicologists and industrial hygienists had been doing to develop threshold limits. ¹⁴⁸ In 1969, Stokinger received the AIHA's Donald E. Cummings Memorial Award, ¹¹⁴ and the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) would later name an honor after him, the Herbert E. Stokinger Award.¹⁴⁹

Table 6 A.M.A. Archives of Industrial Health Editorial Board (Volume 11, January 1955)

Chief Editor

Philip Drinker

Editorial Board

Christopher Leggo, Robert O’Connor, Carl M. Peterson, Frank Princi, Oscar A. Sander, H. H. Schrenk, Charles F. Shook, Herbert E. Stokinger

Editor (A.M.A. Scientific Publications)

Austin Smith

Managing Editor

Gilbert S. Cooper

Part of the AMA-AIH's mandate was to foster closer links between the AMA-AIH itself and the Council on Industrial Health. According to an editorial by Drinker, ¹⁴⁶ this process would involve better communication between management, organized labor, and the medical profession, better integration among the biological, social, and physical sciences, determining the full potential of industrial health as a major component of community health, better standards of administration in public agencies concerned with the health problems of workers, better correlation between industrial research and potential health hazards, and determining ways to make industrial health careers more attractive. Drinker's vision must have been realized to a certain extent, as it has been noted that while the journal dealt primarily with health problems relating to workplace activities, it also began including some focus on ergonomics and controlling exposures during this period. ¹⁵⁰ Of particular note is a 1957 article by Constantin P. Yaglou (1897–1960) and David Minard, ¹⁵¹ one of the first papers to define conditions under which heat injury in the military may occur, and one of the first to propose safe limits for physical exertion. Yaglou was evidently a pioneering figure himself, being a Professor of Hygiene at the Harvard School of Public Health by the 1950s, ¹⁵² and one of the first engineers to join forces with a physician to establish the optimal thermal environment for premature babies. ¹⁵³

In any case, by the time the AMA-AIH was subsumed into its next title, a total of 11 volumes had been published between January 1955 and June 1960. Although it would not become an important issue for editors until much later, the journal impact factor had also been invented during this period. ¹⁵⁴

ARCHIVES OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH (1960–2004)

In July 1960, the Archives of Environmental Health (AEH) was inaugurated, following a meeting of the Board of Trustees in April 1960 where it had been decreed that the predecessor journal should be updated to reflect a newly expanding role. The new journal of 1960, the AEH, also listed 3 subtitles (Preventive Medicine, Occupational Medicine, Aerospace Medicine) to help promote its new mission and more clearly identify interest areas and themes which were deemed important. ¹⁵⁵ The foundation editorial board is displayed in Table 7. At this time, the AEH became an official publication of the Association of Teachers of Preventive Medicine. ¹⁵⁰ Katharine Boucot (Boucot Sturgis after 1962) (1903–1987), a pioneering figure in lung disease, ¹⁵⁶ was appointed Editor-in-Chief at the new journal and would occupy this role between 1961 and 1971. Boucot Sturgis also achieved many personal accolades during her career, being the first female chief editor of a major American medical publication (the AEH), ¹⁵⁶ being president of the ACPM in 1970, ¹⁴⁰ and delivering the Rutherford T. Johnstone Memorial Lecture for WOEMA in 1971. ¹⁴³ During an insightful editorial published in the same year, ¹⁵⁷ Boucot Sturgis suggested that “an industrial society should be able to avail itself of maximal human potential by producing facilities to underpin workers” (pp. 1474–1475). The decade she served as Editor-in-Chief would later be described as a “golden era of scientific and scholarly prestige” for the AEH (p. 111), ¹⁵⁸ with the journal expanding 3-fold. ¹⁵⁹ Although its largest circulation was achieved during this time, when AMA membership fees no longer included a “free” subscription to the AEH, its circulation was subsequently reduced. ¹⁵⁰ Noteworthy members of the journal's early Board of Directors included William F. Ashe Jr. (1909–1966), a one-time colleague of Robert Kehoe at the Kettering laboratory, among others. ^{160 , 161 , 162}

Table 7 Archives of Environmental Health Editorial Board (Volume 1, July 1960)

Chief Editor

Philip Drinker

Editorial Board

Ronald F. Buchan, John H. Foulger, R. T. Johnstone, Carl A. Nau, Sherman S. Pinto, Frank Princi, Oscar A. Sander, H. H. Schrenk, Leo Wade, Herbert E. Stokinger

Director (Division of Scientific Publications)

John H. Talbott

Managing Editor

Gilbert S. Cooper

Assistant Managing Editor

T. F. Rich

In 1969 and 1970, 3 of the most important pieces of legislation directly relevant to US workers were passed by Congress: the Mine Safety and Health Act, the Occupational Safety and Health Act and the Environmental Protection Act. ¹⁶³ During the early years of the new US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the AEH served as a major outlet for crucial air pollution studies such as the Community Health and Environmental Surveillance Studies (CHESS), a watershed for US environmental protection standards. ¹⁶⁴ The pioneering research of Carl Shy and colleagues, ¹⁶⁵ for example, provided important data on air pollution and its effects on US schoolchildren, while the work of Winkelstein and colleagues ^{166 , 167 , 168 , 169} also offered significant insight into the effects of air pollution and its potential health effects among adult men.

In 1971, John S. Chapman took over as Editor-in-Chief of the AEH, guiding the journal as it changed publishers from the AMA to the Helen Dwight Reid Education Foundation (HELDREF) in 1976. ¹⁷⁰ Chapman had originally entered the University of Texas Medical Branch in 1920, where he developed an interest in tuberculosis and other pulmonary diseases. ¹⁷⁰ In 1952 Chapman was appointed the director of graduate and undergraduate activities at the University of Texas Southwestern Medical School, which had been founded 3 years earlier in 1949. ¹⁷¹ In 1961, he presented a curiously titled paper “The unfreudian analysis of a dead man's unconscious” to the 6th annual meeting of the Texas ASA. ¹⁷² Aside from medicine, his other academic interests evidently included history, leading to a 1976 book describing the University of Texas Southwestern Medical School. ¹⁷¹ In at least 1 article, Chapman commented on the state of medical education, particularly in the field of public health and preventive medicine. ¹⁷³

In 1977, a trio of Executive Editors were appointed to the AEH, comprising Wayland J. Hayes Jr., Herbert E. Stokinger, and Kaye H. Kilburn. Wayland J. Hayes Jr. (1917–1993) was a toxicologist who had served as president of the Society of Toxicology (SOT) between 1971 and 1972. ¹⁷⁴ He published a variety of books during his career, including a clinical handbook on economic poisons in 1963, which provided emergency information for treating poisoning by various pesticides and herbicides, ¹⁷⁵ and a book on toxicology in 1974. ¹⁷⁶ Hayes worked as chief toxicologist in the pesticides program of the US Centers for Disease Control (CDC) and would later win the SOT's 1989 Merit Award in recognition of a distinguished career in toxicology. ¹⁷⁷ Biographical information on the second editor, Herbert E. Stokinger, has been described earlier in the current article. The third editor, Kaye H. Kilburn, was a Professor of Medicine at the University of Southern California, who had earlier developed an Environmental Medicine program at Duke University between 1968 and 1973. ¹⁷⁸

In 1985, the Society for Occupational and Environmental Health (SOEH) became the first official sponsor of the AEH. ¹⁷⁹ In 1986 Kaye H. Kilburn was appointed sole Editor-in-Chief, and in the same year, a new peer-review system was introduced whereby each manuscript would be reviewed by 2 Consulting Editors and 1 Executive Editor. The word “international” was also added to the AEH's masthead at this time, thus becoming the Archives of Environmental Health: An International Journal. ¹⁷⁹ In 1988, an editorial policy was adopted whereby all submitted manuscripts were required to report their results in Système International (SI) measurement units. ¹⁸⁰ By 2001, the AEH was publishing 76 research reports in 568 pages and 35 reports in 264 pages during the first 3 issues of 2002. ¹¹⁹ A more detailed analysis of publication statistics for the AEH is described elsewhere. ¹⁸¹ In January 2003, the AEH began a monthly publication schedule, and by late 2004, an online manuscript submission system had also been adopted.

ARCHIVES OF ENVIRONMENTAL & OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH (2005–ONWARDS)

As most readers will know, the current journal was founded in 2005 as a continuation and further evolution of the former AEH, ¹⁸² which published a total of 59 volumes between 1960 and 2004. The decision to include the word “occupational” in the new title was a conscious move by the editorial board to more accurately represent the broader sphere that occupational and environmental health, as a discipline, had become. In the early 1990s, for example, the Board of Directors at the American College of Occupational Medicine had proposed adding the word “Environmental” to the title of their own discipline, thus making it Occupational and Environmental Medicine. ¹⁸³ Editorial board members are displayed on Table 8. Tee L. Guidotti, then Professor of Environmental and Occupational Health at George Washington University, was appointed Editor-in-Chief of the newly named journal, having previously spent much of his career at the University of Alberta in Canada. ¹⁸⁴ Guidotti had received the Jean Spencer Felton Award for Excellence in Scientific Writing from WOEMA twice, the first time in 1981 and then later in 2006. ¹⁸⁵ In the same year, he commenced a 1-year term as ACOEM President, ¹⁸⁶ and began publishing what would eventually become an extended series of editorials describing and debating the literature of environmental and occupational health. ^{187 , 188 , 189 , 190} This was followed by topical debates on traditional knowledge, ¹⁹¹ and children's health with respect to the environment. ¹⁹² In 2005, it became journal policy for authors to declare any conflict of interest they may have when submitting an article. ¹⁹³ This was 2 years before calls for Uniform Requirements were being proposed for occupational medicine journals. ¹⁹⁴

Table 8 Archives of Environmental & Occupational Health Editorial Board (Volume 60, January–February 2005)

Editor-in-Chief

Tee L. Guidotti

Executive Editors

Linda S. Forst, David F. Goldsmith, Lisa A. Morrow, Tak-Sun lgnatius Yu

Consulting Editors

Jerrold L. Abraham, Herman Autrup, John R. Balmes, Iris R. Bell, Nachman Brautbar, Julie Cwikel, John H. Duffus, Nancy Fiedler, Mark Goldberg, Stefanos N. Kales, Philip Landrigan, Karen B. Mulloy, Mark B. Mycyk, Leena A. Nylander-French, David M. Ozonoff, Noel R. Rose, Jonathan M. Samet, Simon D. Spivack, Leslie T. Stayner, Evelyn O. Talbott, Lorenzo Tomatis, John Vena, Sami Youakim

Managing Editor

Kimberly Till

Aside from changing names and editors, the past 20 years have also been a period of innovation for the AEOH. In 2008, for example, the journal adopted a double-blinded peer review system for submitted manuscripts. ¹⁹⁵ Although this practice is becoming steadily more common in modern academia, not all occupational medicine journals use it. ¹⁹⁶ Impact factor “fever” had become a significant influence by the 21st century and although most scholars in the field have long suspected that impact factors are probably rising, it was not until 2008 that an article from the AEOH ¹⁹⁷ was able to demonstrate this phenomenon in an objective manner. In the same year, an Australian, Professor Derek R. Smith, joined the AEOH, one of few editorial board members from that country. Australia's relationship with the journal actually began in 1921, when the JIH's editorial board included a physician named Henry W. Armit (1871–1930). Although Armit was born in Great Britain and had received his medical training there, ¹⁹⁸ in 1913 he was invited by the British Medical Association to move to Australia to help establish its first national medical journal, the Medical Journal of Australia (MJA). ¹⁹⁹ Armit would eventually serve on the MJA's editorial board for 16 years. ²⁰⁰

Another Australian, Charles Badham (1884–1943), was a pioneering occupational physician who had served as an associate editor of the JIHT during its early days. ²⁰¹ Badham was also one of Australia's first industrial medical officers and later made a name for himself as a world expert in dust diseases and lead poisoning. ²⁰² Interestingly, there could have been a third Australian connection with the early journal. Harry E. Mock, editorial board member of the original JIH, had actually declined an offer to join the Rockefeller Foundation in a mission to Australia to organize a Department of Industrial Health for the Australian government following the First World War. ²⁷ An Australian Division of Industrial Hygiene would eventually be formed in the Commonwealth Department of Health by Dr D. G. Robertson in 1921. ²⁰³

The decision to have an internationally representative editorial board at the AEOH can be traced back to the JIHT, and to some extent, the original JIH. In Volume 1 of the JIH (May 1919 to April 1920), for example, the editorial board contained 9 associate editors from the US and 8 from Great Britain. In Volume 2 (May 1920 to April 1921), 1 associate editor from Australia and 1 from South Africa were added, and in Volume 3 (May 1921 to April 1922), associate editors from Australia, Canada, and South Africa appeared. By its next incarnation in 1936, the JIHT had 11 associate editors from the US and 11 from Great Britain, and also included associate editors from Austria, Australia, Canada, Germany, Japan, and South Africa. The trend did not last, however, with the AIHOM, the AMA-AIHOM, the AMA-AIH, and the original AEH all having predominantly American editorial boards, which presumably reflected their publisher of the time, the AMA. As the journal celebrates its 90th birthday, internationalization has again flourished at the AEOH, with the current editorial board containing a multicultural mix of experts from Australia, Canada, Denmark, Hong Kong, Israel, Saudi Arabia, the United Kingdom, and the US.

CONCLUSION

Overall, it can be seen that historical development of the journal reflects a complicated progression of occupational health over the past 90 years from both a social and political perspective. As this article has demonstrated, the JIH and its successor journals served a number of pioneering roles in the collection and dissemination of scientific data. In the 1920s, it was one of the first English-language journals dedicated solely to industrial health, and by the 1970s, had become a significant contributor to US air quality standards, particularly in relation to the newly formed EPA. ¹⁶⁴ The editorial boards featured a who's who in EOH of the day, from early greats such as Edsall and the Drinkers, to some pioneering women of this field, such as Alice Hamilton and Katharine Boucot Sturgis. Many articles that would later become classics in EOH were published in the JIH and its successors. ²⁰⁴

From pioneering days of the early 20th century, through numerous publishers, title changes, editorial boards, and even two World Wars, the AEOH and its predecessors have constantly strived to disseminate important research findings to an ever-changing audience. Although its popularity may have waxed and waned, foundation of the original title in 1919 was a truly inspired event. Ninety years later, the journal continues to deliver in the spirit of these groundbreaking individuals. Perhaps the final word should be given to David Edsall, foundation editor, whose passion for industrial health evolved as a factory physician in the early 20th century. Although occupational hazards had been largely ignored in the printed journal until this time, Edsall clearly recognized the bigger picture of disease causation, once commenting that “a factory is a genial garden to the lover of etiology, with much fruit on many a tree.” ³⁰

Acknowledgments

Derek R. Smith is Professor of Environmental and Occupational Health, and Director of the WorkCover NSW Research Centre of Excellence, University of Newcastle, Ourimbah, New South Wales, Australia.