Challenges of Traditional Rainwater Harvesting Systems in Tunisia

Abstract

The main objective of this article is to examine the relevance of traditional hydraulic systems in ensuring sustainable water supplies at the catchment level and to explore ways to involve farmers in rural development. The methodology we used is based on the analysis of the Tunisian experience with traditional hydraulic systems to conserve water and soil. We proceed with a description of new forms of small hydraulic structures, which, since 1960, have increased significantly throughout the arid and semiarid landscape of Tunisia. We present a strategic framework related to the mobilization of water and to the institutions operating in the field of hydro-agricultural business techniques. The findings can contribute to promoting efficient and sustainable hydro-agricultural structures among decision makers and agricultural stakeholders regarding their future projects. The conclusions we draw can also help to stimulate new thinking about current and future agricultural, social, and economic challenges not only within Tunisia but also in other arid countries in the MENA (Middle East and North Africa) region.

Keywords::

• Agricultural development
• Arid Areas Institutions
• rural society
• semiarid areas
• traditional hydraulic systems
• Tunisia
• water harvesting techniques
• water management systems
• water mobilization policy

Acknowledgements

Sihem Jebari and Ronny Berndtsson acknowledge helpful funding from the Centre for Middle Eastern Studies at Lund University through the MECW project. Jebari also acknowledges helpful funding from the European project BeWater, 7th Framework programme, Science in Society, [Grant No. 612385]; and USAID-FABRI-DAI funding under Grant No. PR&D 07-01, entitled, Participatory planning for improving water use efficiency in river basins.

Notes

¹ S. El Amami (1984) Les aménagements hydrauliques traditionnels de Tunisie [The Traditional Water Systems of Tunisia], p. 69 (Tunis: Centre de Recherche du Génie Rural, Ministère de l'Agriculture).

² N. Ennabli (1993) Les aménagements hydrauliques et Hydro-Agricoles en Tunisie [Water Systems and Irrigated Agriculture in Tunisia], p. 255 (Tunis: Institut National Agronomique de Tunis & Ministère de l'Agriculture et des Ressources Hydrauliques).

³ CREGR (1962) Effets hydrologiques de l'utilisation des sols et des pratiques conservatrices [Hydrological Effects of Soil Use and Conservation Practices]. Report, p. 35 (Tunis: Center of Rural Engineering); Y. Cormary (1967) Utilisation des photographies aériennes: Intégration des paramètres climatiques, pédologiques et agricoles dans l'élaboration d'un projet de CES sur le bassin versant de l'oued Hallouf [Use of Aerial Photography: Integration of Climatic, Soil and Agricultural Parameters in Developing a Project on Water and Soil Conservation at Wadi Hallouf Watershed]. Dossier CGR, No. 30, Note CES-C5, p. 111 (Tunis: Tunisian Center for Rural Engineering); and S. El Amami & Z. Chaabouni (1981) Traditional Hydraulic Reshaping: A Means of Controlling Water Erosion, p. 18 (Tunis: Research Center of Rural Engineering).

⁴ Blue water is the fraction of water that reaches rivers directly as runoff, or indirectly through deep drainage to groundwater and stream base flow.

⁵ Green water is that fraction of rainfall that infiltrates into the soil and is available for plants.

⁶ See further SERST-IRD (2000) Evaluation conjointe du programme de recherche “lacs et barrages collinaires en Tunisie” [Joint Evaluation of Research Program on the Lakes and Hill Dams in Tunisia] (Tunis: Secrétariat d'Etat à la Recherche Scientifique et Technique & Institut de Recherche Développement; DG/ACTA (2007) Stratégie présidentielle pour la conservation des eaux et des sols, 2007–2016 [Presidential Strategy for Water and Soil Conservation, 2007–2016] (Tunis: Ministry of Agriculture); and INRGREF (2012) Rapport d'activités de l'Institut National de Recherches en Génie Rural, Eaux et Forêts [Activities report of the National Research Institute on Rural Engineering, Waters and Forestry] (Tunis: Ministry of Agriculture).

⁷ On social and environmental problems, see further DG/ACTA, Presidential strategy; S. Jebari, R. Berndtsson, A. Bahri & M. Boufarouna (2010) Spatial Soil Loss Risk and Reservoir Siltation in Semi-arid Tunisia, Hydrology Sciences Journal, 55(1), pp. 121–137; and S. Jebari & R. Berndtsson (2013) Tunisian Water Resources Policy at a Crossroad’ (Paper presented at the ISA Annual Convention, San Francisco).

⁸ See further ANPE (2001) Rapport National sur l'état de l'environnement en Tunisie [National Report on the State of the Environment in Tunisia] (Tunis: Ministère de l'Environnement et de l'Aménagement du Territoire).

⁹Tabias are earthen or stone dams that divert, store and capture rainwater. They are discussed later in the text.

¹⁰ See further Slimani (2001) Les inondations en Tunisie [Floods in Tunisia] (Tunis: National Institute of Agronomy).

¹¹ C. Cudennec, C. Leduc, C. & D. Koutsoyiannis (2007) Dryland Hydrology in Mediterranean Regions: A Review, Hydrology Sciences Journal, 52(6), pp. 1077–1087.

¹² See El Amami, Les aménagements hydrauliques traditionnels de Tunisie.

¹³ Ibid.

¹⁴ El Amami, Les aménagements hydrauliques traditionnels, p. 69; and Ennabli, Les aménagements hydrauliques, p. 255.

¹⁵ See further Z. Chaabouni (1977) Contribution in the Study of Solid Transport in a Traditional Reshaping of the use of Runoff for the Supply of Olive Plantations in the Sahel of Tunisia’ (Tunis: The Research Center of Rural Engineering).

¹⁶ Ennabli, Les aménagements hydrauliques et Hydro-Agricoles en Tunisie, p. 255.

¹⁷ El Amami, Les aménagements hydrauliques traditionnels, p. 69.

¹⁸ On the UN role in water projects, see J. Grecco, La défense des sols contre l'érosion [Protection Against Soil Erosion] (Alger: Ministère de la réforme Agraire).

¹⁹ On construction of contour ridges, see further PNUD-FAO (1995) Guide de conservation des eaux et du sol [Water and Soil Conservation Guide] (Tunis: Ministère de l'Agriculture).

²⁰ PNUD-FAO (1991) Rapport d'évaluation sur les techniques de CES en Tunisie [Evaluation Report on CES Techniques in Tunisia], TUN.86-020, Direction de Conservation des Eaux et des Sols (Tunis: Ministère de l'Agriculture et des Ressources Hydrauliques).

²¹ See further on hillside lakes in SERST-IRD, Evaluation Conjointe.

²² S. Selmi & J. C. Talineau (1995) Strategies Related to Scenic and Rural Realities: Reshaping and Development around Hill Lakes in Tunisia (Tunis: Manouba University).

²³ On the state's investment in large hydraulic projects, see further H. Sethom (1992) Pouvoir Urbain et paysannerie en Tunisie: qui sème le vent récolte la tempête [Urban Power and the Peasantry in Tunisia: Who Sows the Wind Reaps the Storm] (Tunis: Ceres Productions); and TPO (2006) Fiftieth Anniversary of the Tunisian Republic (Tunis: Tunisian Printing Office).

²⁴ A. Böhmer (2010) Public-Private Partnerships in the MENA region in Times of Crisis: Current Trends in Private Sector Participation and PPP Policy Evaluation in MENA, IEMed Mediterranean Yearbook, p. 459; and S. Dargouth (2012) La crise de l'eau qui nous interpelle tous: Urgence de s'attaquer aux problèmes de fond du secteur de l'eau [The Water Crisis That Calls on All of Us: Urgent to Deal with the Problems in the Water Sector], in: La Presse de Tunisie, 30 Juillet.

²⁵ TPO, Fiftieth Anniversary.

²⁶ El Amami, Les aménagements hydrauliques traditionnels; and Ennabli, Les aménagements hydraulique.

²⁷ See further PNUD-/FAO, Rapport d'évaluation sur les techniques de CES en Tunisie; and idem, Guide de conservation des eaux et du sol.

²⁸ See further Jebari & Berndtsson, Tunisian Water Resources Policy.

²⁹ On local attitudes toward professional associations, see further S. Marlet (2011) Associations d'usagers de l'eau en Tunisie: Situation, intervention du PAP-AGIR et perspectives dans le cadre du RIM [Associations of Water Users in Tunisia: Situation, PAP/AGIR Intervention, and Views in the RIM Corps] (Tunis: Ministry of Agriculture); and idem (2013) Démarche d'intervention pour l'émancipation et l'amélioration des performances des associations d'irrigants en Tunisie [Intervention Measures for Freeing and Improving the Work of Irrigation Associations in Tunisia], paper presented at SESAME, Montpellier, France, February 21–22, 2013.

³⁰ For an overview of government projects in agriculture, see further INAT [Tunisian Ministry of Agronomy] (1998) Centenaire de l'INAT 1898–1998: Symposium international sur les perspectives du développement agricole durable, de la recherche agronomique à l'agriculture d'excellence [INAT Centennial, 1898–1998: International Symposium on Sustainable Agricultural Development Perspectives from Agricultural Research to Agricultural Development] (Tunis: INAT).

³¹http://www.iort.gov.tn/WD120AWP/WD120Awp.exe/CONNECT/SITEIORT, accessed November 12, 2014.

³² C. Mader et al. (2015) The Education, Research, Society, and Policy Nexus of Sustainable Water Use in Semiarid Regions: A Case Study from Tunisia (Tunis: Sustainable Water Use and Management of Green Energy and Technology Center), pp 277–291. Available at: http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-12394-315, accessed January 3, 2015.